Full text of "The Poetics; translated with a critical text by S.H. Butcher"

See other formats

Presented τὸ

The: Library

of the

University of Toronto
by

Ralph: Ross sisqe

THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

TEXT AND TRANSLATION.

POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

THE ᾿

TRANSLATED WITH A CRITICAL TEXT
BY

5, H. BUTCHER, Lit.D., LL.D.

PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ; FORMERLY
FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND OF _
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD

London
MACMILLAN AND CO. s
AND NEW YORK “σ
ΧΈΣ
1895 es

sai

acd i ¥ Hh νος Koos,

ἴον τ ἥ nie
gh που Ps ri

a
¥

+ 1) FAD.
PR YE ON

; : a, } δ ς τ i

Raid pee eA A

ἐν
ie Φ

λυ

PREFATORY NOTE

Tue following text and translation of the Poetics
form part of the volume entitled ‘Aristotle’s
Theory of Poetry and Fine Art’ (Macmillan and
Co., 1895), and are here re-issued separately for

the convenience of classical readers.

fest ἮΝ Digitized by the Internet Archive — al A ee
4 in 2007 with funding from he: Nn
Ἢ ὌΝ Microsoft Corporation δ ΡΤ

CONTENTS

PAGE
Epitions, TRANSLATIONS, ETC.
ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

TEXT AND TRANSLATION OF THE POETICS

EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC.

Tue following is a list of the chief editions and translations of the Poetics,
and of other writings relating to this treatise, arranged in chronological
order :—

Valla (G.), Latin translation. Venice, 1498.

Aldine text, in Rhetores Graeci. Venice, Aldus, 1508.

Latin translation, with the summary of Averroes (0b. 1198). Venice,
Arrivabene, 1515.

Pazzi (A.) [Paccius], Avistotelis Poetica, per Alexandrwm Pacciwm, patri-
tium Florentinum, in Latinum conversa. Venice, Aldus, 1536.

Trincaveli, Greek text. Venice, 1536.

Robortelli (Fr.), In librwm Aristotelis de Arte Poetica explicationes.
Florence, 1548.

Segni (B.), Rettorica ὁ Poetica d’ Aristotele tradotte di Greco in lingua
vulgare. Florence, 1549.

Maggi (V.) [Madius], Zn <Aristotelis librwm de Poetica explanationes.
Venice, 1550.

Vettori (P.) [Victorius], Commentationes in primum librum Aristotelis de
Arte Poectarum. Florence, 1560.

Castelvetro (L.), Poctica d’ Aristotele vulgarizeata. Vienna, 1570; Basle,
1576. .

Piccolomini (A.), Annotationt nel libro della Poctica d’ Aristotele, con la
traduttione del medesimo libro in lingua volgare. Venice, 1575.

Casaubon (I.), edition of Aristotle. Leyden, 1590.

Heinsius (D.) recenswit. Leyden, 1610.

Goulston (T.), Latin translation. London, 1623, and Cambridge, 1696.

Dacier, La Pottique traduite en Franeais, avec des remarques critiques.
Paris, 1692.

Batteux, Les quatres Pottiques d’Aristote, d Horace, de Vida, de Des-
preaux, avec les traductions et des remarques par 1 Abbé Batteux.
Paris, 1771.

x POETRY AND FINE ART

Winstanley (T.), commentary on Poetics, Oxford, 1780.

Reiz, De Poetica Liber. Leipzig, 1786.

Metastasio (P.), Zstratto dell’ Arte Poetica d’ Aristotele 6 considerazioni su
la medesima. Paris, 1782.

Twining (T.), Aristotle’s Treatise on Poetry, translated with notes on the
translation and on the original, and two dissertations on poetical
and musical imitation. London, 1789.

Pye (H. J.), A Commentary illustrating the Poetic of Aristotle by examples
taken chiefly from the modern poets. To which is prefixed anew and
corrected edition of the translation of the Poetic. London, 1792.

Tyrwhitt (T.), De Poetica Liber. Textwm recensuit, versionem refinait, et
animadversionibus tllustravit Thomas Tyrwhitt. Oxford, 1794.

Buhle (J. T.) recenswit. Géttingen, 1794.

Hermann (Godfrey), Ars Poetica cwm commentariis. Leipzig, 1802.

Grafenham (E. A. W.), De Arte Poetica librwm denuo recensuit, commen-
tariis illustravit, etc. Leipzig, 1821.

Raumer (Fr. v.), Ueber die Poetik des Aristoteles und sein Verhiiltniss zu
den neuern Dramatikern. Berlin, 1829,

Spengel (L.), Ueber Aristoteles’ Poetik in Abhandlungen der Miinchener
Akad. philos.-philol. Cl. II. Munich, 1887,

Ritter (Fr.), Ad codices antiquos recognitam, latine conversam, com-
mentario illustratam edidit Franciscus Ritter. Cologne, 1839.

Egger (M. E.), Essai sur (histoire de la Critique chez les Grecs, swivi de
la Poétique d’ Aristote et @extraits de ses Problémes, avec traduc-
tion francaise et commentaire. Paris, 1849.

Bernays (Jacob), Grundziige der verlorenen Abhandlung des Aristoteles
uber Wirkung der Tragédie. Breslau, 1857.

Saint-Hilaire (J. B.), Poétique traduwite en frangais et accompagnée de notes
perpetuelles. Paris, 1858.

Stahr (Adolf), Avistoteles und die Wirkung der Tragédie. Berlin, 1859.

Stahr (Adolf), German translation, with Introduction and notes. Stutt-
gart, 1860.

Liepert (J.), Aristoteles iiber den Zweck der Kunst. Passau, 1862.

Susemihl (F.), German translation, with Introduction and notes. Leip-
zig, 1865 and 1874,

Vahlen (J.), Beitrdge zu Aristoteles’ Poetik. Vienna, 1865.

Spengel (L.), Avristotelische Studien IV. - Munich, 1866.

Vahlen (J.) recenswit. Berlin, 1867.

Teichmiiller (G.), Aristotelische Forschungen. 1. Beitriige zur Erkliérung |

der Poetik des Aristoteles. 11. Aristoteles’ Philosophie der Kunst.
Halle, 1869.

Ueberweg (F'.), German translation and notes. Berlin, 1869,

EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC. xi

Reinkens (J. H.), Avistoteles iiber Kunst, besonders iiber Tragidie.
Vienna, 1870.

Doring (A.), Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles. Jena, 1870.

Ueberweg (F.), Ars Poetica ad βάδην potissimum codicis antiquissimi 445
(Parisiensis 1741). Berlin, 1870.

Bywater (I.), Aristotelia in Journal of Philology, v. 117 ff. and xiv. 40 ff.
London and Cambridge, 1873 and 1885.

Vahlen (J.) iterwm recensuit et adnotatione critica auxit. Berlin, 1874.

Moore (E.), Vahlen’s text with notes. Oxford, 1875.

Christ (W.) recenswit. Leipzig, 1878 and 1893.

Bernays (Jacob), Zwei <Abhandlungen iiber Aristotelische Theorie des
Drama. Berlin, 1880.

Brandscheid (F.), Text, German translation, critical notes and com-
mentary. Wiesbaden, 1882.

Wharton (E. R.), Vahlen’s text with English translation. Oxford, 1883.

Margoliouth (D.), Analecta Orientalia ad Poeticam Aristoteleam. Lon-
don, 1887.

Bénard (C.),°L’ Esthétique α᾽ Aristote. Paris, 1887.

Heidenhain (F.), Averrois Paraphrasis in libruwm Poeticae Aristotelis Jacob
Mantino interprete. Leipzig, 1889.

Prickard (A. 0.), Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. A Lecture with two
Appendices. London, 1891.

Vs Se |
a ee4

Sarees 2 ibe ae
5a ΐ = ye

CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA (October 1895)

[I desire to acknowledge special obligations to my reviewers in The
Saturday Review March 2nd 1895, The Classical Review May 1895,
The Oxford Magazine June 12th 1895, and the Berliner Philologische
Wochenschrift September 28th 1895. Many, however, of the points
thus raised. will require separate and full treatment elsewhere. ]

p- 9 ll. 18 to 15, for ‘People do, indeed, . . . poets’ read ‘People
do, indeed, add the word ‘‘maker” to the name of the particular metre
used, and speak of ‘‘ makers” of elegiac, or of epic (that is, hexameter)
verse.’

p- 91. 16, for ‘ poets’ read ‘ ‘‘ makers” or poets.’

Ῥ. 19 1. 28, for ‘for example’ read ‘to go no farther.’

p- 19 1. 29, for ‘cause pain’ read ‘imply pain.’

p. 22 notes 1. 6, for αἰτία read αἴτια.

Ῥ. 23 1. 28, for ‘By Thought, that whereby a statement is proved’
read ‘Thought is required wherever a statement is proved.’ Similarly,
p- 27 ll. 22 to 25, for ‘Thought . . . general maxim’ read ‘ Thought,
on the other hand, is found where something is proved to be or not to be,
or a general maxim is stated.’

p. 25 1. 31. In The Classical Review of June 1895 the Rev. W. Lock
(following Vahlen) shows that the traditional translation of περιπέτεια,
‘Reversal of Fortune,’ does not express the sense attached to the word
by Aristotle in the Poetics. It ‘is simply any event in which any agent’s
intention is over-ruled to produce an effect which is the direct opposite of
that intention.’- Several interesting illustrations are added of περιπέτειαι
in ancient and modern literature. A satisfactory English equivalent
for this technical and special meaning of the word can hardly be found.
Perhaps a ‘Reversal of the Action’ may be accepted as an approximate
translation, if we bear in mind Aristotle’s own definition in ch. xi. 8 1.
Another and looser use of the word occurs in xvi. 3, ἐκ περιπετείας, which,
as Mr. Lock suggests, may merely mean ‘accidentally’ (cf. its use in
Polybius).

p- 29 1. 24, ‘a living organism.’ I am inclined to agree with
Mr. R. P. Hardie (Mind vol. iv. No. 15), that ζῷον here (ch. vii. §§ 4-5)
and again in ch. xxiii. 1 refers to a painting of a living creature, not to
the living organism itself.

Ls)

CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA

p. 29 1. 27, after ‘a certain magnitude’ place a semicolon, and add
‘for beauty consists in magnitude and arrangement.’

p. 83 1. 13, for ‘that which . . without being perceived,’ read ‘that
whose presence or absence is not noticed.’

p- 87 1. 12, ‘while he was looking at it.’ The Rev. W. Lock has
represented to me that θεωροῦντι here must mean ‘while he was acting as
θεωρός, ‘serving as a sacred envoy,’ for Plutarch tells us that the incident
took place θέας οὔσης. See Plut. de sera num. vind. 8 553d (quoted by
Vahlen on this passage).

p. 41 1. 26, for ‘on the simple not the complicated plan’ read ‘on the
complicated not the simple plan.’

p. 50 1. 9 (1454 ἃ 22), perhaps insert <dvdpl> before ἀνδρεῖον (Saturday
Review March 2nd 1895).

p. 51 1. 6, after ‘will’ insert ‘as has been said,’ placing commas at
‘will,’ and ‘said.’

p. 511. 7, for ‘This rule applies to persons of every class’ read ‘ This
rule is relative to each class.’

p. 60 1. 11 (1455 Ὁ 21), for ἀναγνωρίσας [τινὰς αὐτὸς] I prefer Professor
Bywater’s correction, dvayvwploas ὅτι αὐτὸς (Oxford Magazine June 12th
1895).

p. 65 1. 2, for ‘figure badly on the stage’ read ‘contend unsuccessfully.’

p. 72 1. 2 (14574 36). For μεγαλείων (μεγαλιωτῶν codd.) we should
doubtless read Μασσαλιωτῶν or Μασιλιωτῶν with Diels (Ber. der Berl.
Akad. 1888). Following the Arabic version (‘sicut multa de Massaliotis,
Hermocaicoxanthus qui supplicabatur dominum coelorum’) he conjectures
Ἑρμοκαϊκόξανθος ἐπευξάμενος Aw πατρί, and discovers in ‘EppoxatxdéavGos
an allusion to Phocaea (the mother-city of Massalia) which lay between
the Hermus and the Caicus. Cp. Susemihl in Jahresbericht (Bursian) lxvii
p. 163 and Wilamowitz Aristot. αν. Athen τι. p. 29.

p. 86 1. 2 (1459 Ὁ 22), for τιθεμένων Mr. H. Richards offers a good con-
jecture, καθιεμένων (Class. Rev. May 1895).

p- 94n. 2 (on ovdpfas). Dr. Verrall has pointed out to me that the
passage referred to, in all probability, is not J/iad i. 50, but Iliad xxiii.
111, 115.

p: 95 1. 17, for ‘right or wrong’ read ‘ poetically good or not,’ and so
in 1. 19 for ‘in itself good or bad’ read ‘ poetically good or bad.’ See
Aristotle's Poetics C. xxv in the Light of the Homeric Scholia, Mitchell
Carroll, Baltimore, 1895.

Ῥ. 96 n. 3, for ‘igitur’ read ‘ agitur.’

p- 97 1. 13, for ‘accent’ read ‘accent or breathing.’

Ῥ. 99 1. 30, for ‘inconsistencies’ read ‘ contradictory statements.’

Ῥ. 101 1. 11, for ‘inconsistent’ read ‘ contradictory.’

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

I. ‘Imitation’ (uiunors) the common principle of the Arts of Poetry,
Music, Dancing, Painting, and Sculpture. These Arts dis-
tinguished according to the Means, the Objects, and the
Manner of Imitation. The Means of Imitation are Rhythm,
Language, and ‘Harmony’ (or Melody), taken singly or com-
bined.

II. The Objects of Imitation.
Higher or lower types are represented in all the Imitative
Arts. In Poetry this is the basis of the distinction between
Tragedy and Comedy.

III, The Manner of Imitation.

" Poetry may be in form either dramatic narrative, pure
natrative (including lyric poetry), or pure drama. A
digression follows on the name and original home of the
Drama.

IV. The Origin of Poetry. ἢ

Psychologically, Poetry may be traced to two causes, the
instinct of Imitation, and the instinct of Harmony and
Rhythm.

Historically viewed, Poetry diverged early in two directions :
traces of this twofold tendency are found in the Homeric poems :
Tragedy and Comedy exhibit the distinction in a developed
form.

The successive steps in the history of Tragedy are enumer-
ated.

VY. Definition of the Ludicrous (τὸ γελοῖον), and a brief sketch of the
rise of Comedy. Points of comparison between Epic Poetry
and Tragedy. (The chapter is fragmentary. )

VII.

VIII.

ΙΧ.

ΧΙΥ.

XV.

XVi.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

. Definition of Tragedy. Six elements in Tragedy : three external,

—namely, Scenic Presentment (ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος or ὄψι),
Lyrical Song (μελοποιία), Diction (λέξις) ; three internal,—
namely, Plot (μῦθος), Character (400s), and Thought (διάνοια).
Plot, or the representation of the action, is of primary import-
ance ; Character and Thought come next in order.

The Plot must be a Whole, complete in itself, and of adequate
magnitude.

The Plot must be a Unity. Unity of Plot consists not in Unity
of Hero, but in Unity of Action.
The parts must be organically connected.

(Plot continued.) Dramatic Unity can be attained only by the
observance of Poetic, as distinct from Historic Truth; for
Poetry is an expression of the Universal, History of the Par-
ticular. The rule of probable or necessary sequence as applied
to the incidents. Certain plots condemned for want of Unity.

The best Tragic effects depend on the combination of the
Inevitable and the Unexpected.

. (Plot continued.) Definitions of Simple (ἁπλοῖ) and Complicated

(πεπλεγμένοι) Plots.

. (Plot continued.) Sudden Reversal of Fortune (περιπέτεια)

Recognition (ἀναγνώρισις), and Tragic or disastrous Incident
(πάθος) defined and explained.

. The ‘quantitative parts’ (μέρη κατὰ τὸ ποσόν) of Tragedy de-

fined :—Prologue, Episode, ete. (Probably an interpolation. )

. (Plot continued.) What constitutes Tragic Action. The

change of fortune and the character of the hero as requisite
to an ideal Tragedy. The unhappy ending more truly tragic
than the ‘ poetic justice’ which is in favour with a popular
audience, and belongs rather to Comedy.

(Plot continued.) The tragic emotions of pity and fear should
spring out of the Plot itself. To produce them by the Scenery
or Stage Spectacle is entirely against the spirit of Tragedy.
Examples of Tragic Incidents designed to heighten the
emotional effect.

The element of Character (as the manifestation of moral purpose)
in Tragedy. Requisites of ethical portraiture. The rule of
necessity or probability applicable to Character as to Plot.
The ‘Deus ex Machina’ (a passage out of place here). How
Character is idealised.

(Plot continued.) Recognition: its various kinds, with examples. -

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

XVII. Practical rules for the Tragic Poet :
(1) To place the scene before his eyes, and to act the
parts himself in order to enter into vivid sympathy with the

dramatis personae

(2) To sketch the bare outline of the action before proceed-
ing to fill in the episodes,
The Episodes of Tragedy are here incidentally contrasted

with those of Epic Poetry
XVIII. Further rules for the Tragic Poet :
(1) To be careful about the Complication (déc1s) and Dé-
nouement (λύσις) of the Plot ; especially the Dénouement.
(2) To unite, if possible, varied forms of poetic excellence.
(3) Not to overcharge a Tragedy with details appropriate

to Epic Poetry.
(4) To make the Choral Odes—like the Dialogue—an organic

part of the whole.
XIX. Thought (διάνοια), or the Intellectual element, and Diction in

“ ; ,
Tragedy.
Thought may be expressed either by the dramatic speeches
—composed according to the rules of Rhetoric—or through the

dramatic incidents, which speak for themselves
Diction falls largely within the domain of the Art of De-

clamation, rather than of Poetry.
. An analysis of the parts of

Ὕ ἌΧ, Diction, or Language in general

speech, and other grammatical details. (Probably interpolated.)
. The words and modes of speech admissible
including Metaphor, in particular.

/ XXI. Poetic Diction
in Poetry: i i
A passage—probably interpolated—on. the Gender of Nouns
How Poetry combines elevation of

( XXII. (Poetic Diction continued.)
language with perspicuity.
XXIII. Epic Poetry. It agrees with Tragedy in Unity of Action: herein —
Further points of agreement with

contrasted with History.
(2) the metre ;

XXIV. (Epic Poetry continued.)
Tragedy. The points of difference are enumerated and illus-

trated,—namely, (1) the length of the poem ;

(3) the art of imparting a plausible air to incredible fiction.

XXY. Critical Objections brought against Poetry, and the principles on
- In particular, an elucidation

which they are to be answered.

of the meaning of Poetic Truth, and its difference from common
reality.

XXVI. A general estimate of the comparative worth of Epic Poetry and

Tragedy. The alleged defects of Tragedy are not essential to it
Its positive merits entitle it to the higher rank of the two

Αὐ-ὀ the Parisian manuscript (1741) of the 11th
century: generally—but perhaps on insuffi-
cient evidence—supposed to be the archetype
from which all other extant MSS. directly or
indirectly are derived.

Apogr.= 018 or more of the MSS. other than A“
Arabs

the Arabic version of the Poetics (Paris 882 A),
of the middle of the 10th century, a version
independent of our extant MSS. (The quota-
tions in the critical notes are from the literal
Latin translation of this version, as given in
Margoliouth’s Analecta Orientalia.)

Ald.= the Aldine edition of Rhetores Graeci, published in
1508.

Vahlen= Vahlen’s text of the Poetics Ed. 3.
Vahlen coni.= ἃ conjecture of Vahlen, not admitted by him into

the text.
[ ]= words with manuscript authority (including A°),
which should be deleted from the text.
>= a conjectural supplement to the text.
* *— a lacuna in the text.
+ = words which are corrupt but have not been satis-

factorily restored.

ee
Oe

i
-—

oa μ

- * x 2

“i
. ἮΝ

» Ww Υ

, "

es 4 ᾿ sis «
ie

ΠΕΡῚ ΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΗ͂Σ

15.
‘Ter ey Ἷ
ἃ

APISTOTEAOTS ΠΕΡῚ ΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΗΣ

I Περὶ ποιητικῆς αὐτῆς τε καὶ τῶν εἰδῶν αὐτῆς, ἥν τινα
1441 ἃ δὴ “ ” Vien Ree , \ ΄
ύναμιν ἕκαστον ἔχει, καὶ πῶς δεῖ συνίστασθαι τοὺς μύθους
nr > /
το εἰ μέλλει καλῶς ἕξειν ἡ ποίησις, ἔτι δὲ ἐκ πόσων Kal
/ > \ / € / \ \ \ lal - Φ fol
“ποίων ἐστὶ μορίων, ὁμοίως δὲ Kal περὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα τῆς

αὐτῆς ἐστι μεθόδου, λέγωμεν ἀρξάμενοι κατὰ φύσιν πρῶ-

> ἈΝ “ ’ > 7ὔ \ A oe nr /
τον ἀπὸ TOV πρώτων. ἐποποιία δὴ Kal ἡ τῆς τραγῳδίας
/ yw \ / Wei 4 \ \ n
ποίησις ἔτι δὲ κωμῳδία καὶ ἡ διθυραμβοποιητικὴ καὶ τῆς
Ε na ς / \ rn cal /
15 αὐλητικῆς ἡ πλείστη καὶ κιθαριστικῆς πᾶσαι τυγχάνουσιν
οὖσαι μιμήσεις τὸ σύνολον, διαφέρουσι δὲ ἀλλήλων τρισίν, 3
BY \ νυ SE Ψ a d “a ¢ x Ae Ff
ἢ yap τῷ ἐν ἑτέροις μιμεῖσθαι ἢ TO ἕτερα ἢ TO Eré-
pos καὶ μὴ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ χρώμασι 4
καὶ σχήμασι πολλὰ μιμοῦνταί τινες ἀπεικάζοντες (οἱ μὲν
20 διὰ τέχνης οἱ δὲ διὰ συνηθείας), ἕτεροι δὲ διὰ τῆς φωνῆς,
οὕτω κἀν ταῖς εἰρημέναις τέχναις" ἅπασαι μὲν ποιοῦνται
\ / > ς a \ / in Oe / ΄ >
τὴν μίμησιν ev ῥυθμῷ καὶ λόγῳ Kal ἁρμονίᾳ, τούτοις ὃ
x \ x “4 ς 7 \ ε al ,ὔ
ἢ χωρὶς ἢ μεμυγμένοις, οἷον ἁρμονίᾳ μὲν καὶ ῥυθμῷ χρώ-

/ ¢ > \ » a4 \ x
μεναι μόνον ἥ τε αὐλητικὴ καὶ. ἡ κιθαριστικὴ κἂν εἴ τινες

1441 a 9. ἕκαστον apogr. : ἕκαστοτι ΑΞ, 12. λέγωμεν apogr. : λέγομεν
AS, 17. tw ἐν Forchhammer: ‘imitatur rebus diversis’ Arabs : τῶι
γένει AS, 20. φωνῆς] ‘per sonos’ Arabs: φύσεως Maggi. 21. καὶ

ἐν apogr.: καὶ ΑὉ : κἂν Ald.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

I I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its several

1447 species, noting the essential quality of each; to inquire
into the structure of the plot as requisite to a good poem ;
into the number and nature of the parts of which each
species consists; and similarly into whatever else falls
within the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of
nature, let us begin with the principles which come
first.

Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and dithyrambic 2
poetry, and the greater part of the music of the flute and
of the lyre, are all in their general conception modes of
imitation. They differ, however, from one another in 3
three respects,—the means, the objects, the manner of
imitation being in each case distinct. :

For as there are persons who, by conscious art or 4
mere habit, imitate and represent various objects through
the medium of colour and form, or again by the voice ;
so in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, the
imitation is produced by rhythm, language, and ‘ harmony, ’.
either singly or combined.

Thus in the music of the flute and the lyre ‘ enone

8 I. 4—10. 1447 a 25—1447 b 24

25 ἕτεραι τυγχάνουσιν οὗσαι τοιαῦται THY δύναμιν, οἷον ἡ τῶν
7ὔ > Ὁ \ A ε lel a \ e /
συρίγγων, αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ ῥυθμῷ [μιμοῦνται] χωρὶς ἁρμονίας 5
fal lal cal /
ἡ τῶν ὀρχηστῶν, καὶ yap οὗτοι διὰ τῶν σχηματιζομένων
ῥυθμῶν μιμοῦνται καὶ ἤθη καὶ πάθη καὶ πράξεις" ἡ δὲ 6
> r » “Ὁ
[ἐποποιία] μόνον τοῖς λόγοις Ψιλοῖς ἢ τοῖς μέτροις καὶ τού-
1410 τοῖς εἴτε μιγνῦσα μετ᾽ ἀλλήλων εἴθ᾽ Evi τινι γένει χρωμένη
τῶν μέτρων, --ἀνώνυμος-- τυγχάνει οὖσα μέχρι τοῦ νῦν" Τ
50 Ν. x 4 > / Ν \ / \
10 οὐδὲν γὰρ ἂν ἔχοιμεν ὀνομάσαι κοινὸν τοὺς Σώφρονος Kal
Ξενάρχου μίμους καὶ τοὺς Σωκρατικοὺς λόγους, οὐδὲ εἴ
τις διὰ τριμέτρων ἢ ἐλεγείων ἢ τῶν ἄλλων τινῶν τῶν τοιού-
τῶν ποιοῖτο τὴν μίμησιν" πλὴν οἱ ἄνθρωποί γε συνάπτοντες
τῷ μέτρῳ τὸ ποιεῖν ἐλεγειοποιούς, τοὺς δὲ ἐποποιοὺς ὀνομά-
15 ζουσιν, οὐχ ὡς κατὰ τὴν μίμησιν ποιητὰς ἀλλὰ κοινῇ κατὰ τὸ
/ 4 \ x > \ x /
μέτρον προσαγορεύοντες. Kal yap ἂν ἰατρικὸν ἢ φυσικόν 8
τί διὰ τῶν μέτρων ἐκφέρωσιν, οὕτω καλεῖν εἰώθασιν, οὐδὲν
> lal
δὲ κοινόν ἐστιν Ὁμήρῳ καὶ ᾿Ἐμπεδοκλεῖ πλὴν τὸ μέτρον, διὸ
τὸν μὲν ποιητὴν δίκαιον καλεῖν, τὸν δὲ φυσιολόγον μᾶλλον
Xx / ς / δὲ ΕΝ yf Ὁ \ / 4 9
20 ἢ ποιητήν: ὁμοίως δὲ κἂν el Tis ἅπαντα τὰ μέτρα μιγνύων
fal \ / 7 5 ’ /
ποιοῖτο τὴν μίμησιν καθάπερ Χαιρήμων ἐποίησε Κένταυ-
\ « id > © / Ὁ ͵ὕ] ὶ nr
pov μικτὴν ῥαψῳδίαν ἐξ ἁπάντων τῶν μέτρων, Kal τοῦτον
ποιητὴν προσαγορευτέον. περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων διωρίσθω
τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον᾽ εἰσὶ δέ τινες al πᾶσι χρῶνται τοῖς εἰρη- 10
25. τυγχάνουσιν apogr.: τυγχάνωσιν AY. τοιαῦται δα, ΔΡΟΡΥ. : ‘aliae artes
similes vi’ Arabs. 26. μιμοῦνται del. Spengel, quod confirmat Arabs.
27. ἡ apogr.: ‘ars instrumenti saltationis ’ Arabs: of A®: οἱ «πολλοὶ:
Heinsius. 29. ἐποποιία seclus. Ueberweg. ψιλοῖς ἢ τοῖς μέτροις] ἢ τοῖς
ψιλοῖς μέτροις coniec. Vahlen. 1447 Ὁ 9. ἀνώνυμος add. Bernays, con-
firmante Arabe ‘quae sine nomine est adhuc.’ τυγχάνει οὖσα Suckow:
τυγχάνουσα codd. 15. κατὰ τὴν apogr. : τὴν κατὰ ΑΞ“. 16. φυσικόν
Heinsius: ‘re physica’ Arabs. ‘Idem praestat Averroes’ (Margoliouth) :

μουσικόν codd. 22. καὶ τοῦτον apogr.: καὶ ΑΘ; οὐκ ἤδη καὶ Ald., Bekker.

24, αἵ apogr.: οἱ A°: ‘homines qui’ Arabs. é

1447 b

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS I. 4—10 9

and rhythm alone are employed; also in other arts, such
as that of the pipe, which are essentially similar to these.
In dancing, rhythm alone is used without ‘harmony’; for,5
even dancing imitates character, emotion, and action, by
rhythmical movement.

The art which imitates by means of language alone, 6
and that either in prose or verse—which verse, again, may
either combine different metres or consist of but one kind
—has hitherto been without a name. For there is no7
common term we could apply to the mimes of Sophron and
Xenarchus and to the Socratic dialogues; or, again, to
poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any similar metre.
People do, indeed, commonly connect the idea of poetry
or ‘making’ with that of verse, and speak of elegiac
poets, or of epic (that is, hexameter) poets; implying
that it is not imitation that makes them poets, but the
metre that entitles them to the common name. Even if 8
a treatise on medicine or natural philosophy be brought
out in verse, the name of poet is by custom given to the
author; and yet Homer and Empedocles have nothing
in common except the metre: the former, therefore, is
properly styled poet, the latter, physicist rather than poet.

So too if a writer should, in his poetic imitation, 9
combine every variety of metre, like Chaeremon—whose
Centaur is a rhapsody in which all metres are mingled —
we must, according to usage, call him simply poet. So
much then for these distinctions.

There are, again, certain kinds of poetry which 10
employ all the means above mentioned, — namely, ἡ
rhythm, melody and metre. Such are dithyrambic and
nomic poetry, and also Tragedy and Comedy; but be-

10 1. ro—IIL. τ. 41447 Ὁ 25—1448 a 19

25 μένοις, λέγω δὲ οἷον ῥυθμῷ καὶ μέλει καὶ μέτρῳ, ὥσπερ
oe a a / ‘ c a / wen
ἥ τε τῶν διθυραμβικῶν ποίησις καὶ ἡ TOV νόμων καὶ ἥ
τε τραγῳδία καὶ ἡ κωμῳδία, διαφέρουσι δὲ ὅτι αἱ μὲν
“ a e \ \ 7 4 \ φ / \
ἅμα πᾶσιν ai δὲ κατὰ μέρος. ταύὔτας μὲν οὖν λέγω τὰς
διαφορὰς τῶν τεχνῶν, ἐν οἷς ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν.
> Ν \ n e , / oe 4
II ἐπεὶ δὲ μιμοῦνται οἱ μιμούμενοι TpaTTovTas, ἀνάγκη δε
1448 a
τούτους ἢ σπουδαίους ἢ φαύλους εἶναι (τὰ yap ἤθη σχεδὸν
3." / > n / / \ eh} r ”
ἀεὶ τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖ μόνοις, κακίᾳ yap Kal ἀρετῇ τὰ ἤθη
διαφέρουσι πάντες), ἤτοι βελτίονας ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἢ χείρονας
5 ἢ καὶ τοιούτους, ὥσπερ οἱ γραφεῖς" ἸΠολύγνωτος μὲν γὰρ
κρείττους, ἸΤαύσων δὲ χείρους, Διονύσιος δὲ ὁμοίους εἴκαξεν"
δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἑκάστη μιμήσεων ἕξει 2
4 Ν \ ΑΓ φρο “τῶν n
ταύτας τὰς διαφορὰς καὶ ἔσται ἑτέρα τῷ ἕτερα μιμεῖσθαι
fe) \ ’ Ν εἶ > > / \ te ee Ν
τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον. καὶ γὰρ ἐν ὀρχήσει καὶ αὐλήσει καὶ 8
, ᾿ ͵ , Ao ὦ , : \ 17.
10 κιθαρίσει ἔστι γενέσθαι ταύτας τὰς ἀνομοιότητας" καὶ [τὸ]
περὶ τοὺς λόγους δὲ καὶ τὴν Ψψιλομετρίαν, οἷον “Ὅμηρος
μὲν βελτίους, Κλεοφῶν δὲ ὁμοίους, «Ἡγήμων δὲ ὁ Θάσιος ὁ
τὰς παρῳδίας ποιήσας πρῶτος καὶ Νικοχάρης ὁ τὴν Δηλι-
dda χείρους" ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς διθυράμβους καὶ περὶ 4
15 τοὺς νόμους" ὥσπερ γὰρ Κύκλωπας Τιμόθεος καὶ Φιλό-
»” 5] nr 7 A \ A c
Eevos, μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις" ἐν τῇ αὐτῇ δὲ διαφορᾷ καὶ ἡ
δί Ν \ δί LA ς \ /
τραγῳδία πρὸς τὴν κωμῳδίαν διέστηκεν, ἡ μὲν γὰρ χεί-
ρους ἡ δὲ βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν.
Ill ἔτι δὲ τούτων τρίτη διαφορὰ τὸ ὡς Exacta τούτων

26. διθυράμβων apogr. 28, πᾶσαι apogr. οὖν apogr.: οὐ A°. 29. οἷς
Vettori: αἷς Α5, 1448 a 3. κακίᾳ... ἀρετῇ apogr.: κακία... ἀρετὴ A°.
8. τῷ apogr.: τὸ AS. 12. dante τὰς add. apogr. 13. Δειλιάδα Ae pr.
man. 15. ὥσπερ yap Vahlen ed. 3 adnot.: ὥσπερ yas codd.: ὥσπερ
᾿Αργᾶς Castelvetro: ὡς Πέρσας Vettori. 16. μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις] fort.
secludendum (Vahlen). τῇ αὐτῇ δὲ Vettori: ‘in eadem discrepantia’
Arabs: ταύτῃ δὲ τῇ M. Casaubon: αὐτῇ δὲ τῇ codd. '

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS I. 1o—III. 1 11

tween them the difference is, that in the first two cases
these means are all employed at the same time, in the
latter, separately.

Such, then, are the differences of the arts with respect
to the means of imitation.

II Since the objects of imitation are persons acting, and

MS? these persons must be either of a higher or a lower type
(for moral character mainly answers to these divisions,
goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks
of moral differences), it follows that we must represent
men either as better than in real life, or worse, or
as they are. It is the same in painting. Polygnotus
depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less
noble, Dionysius drew them true to life.

Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation 2
above mentioned will exhibit these differences, and be-
conie a distinct kind in imitating objects that are thus
distinct. Such diversities may be found even in dancing, 3
flute-playing, and lyre-playing. So again in prose com-
positions, and in verse unaccompanied by music. Homer,
for example, makes men better than they are; Cleophon
as they are; Hegemon the Thasian, the inventor of
parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Deliad, worse
than they are. The same thing holds good of dithyrambs 4
and nomes; here too one may portray lower types, as
Timotheus and Philoxenus represented Cyclopes. _The
‘same distinction marks off Tragedy from Comedy; for

Comedy aims at representing men as worse, Tragedy as

better than in actual life.
III There is still a third difference—the manner in which

each of these objects may be imitated. For the means

12 IIL 1—4. 1448 a 20—1448 b 3

20 μιμήσαιτο ἄν τις. Kal yap ἐν τοῖς αὐτοῖς καὶ τὰ αὐτὰ
Lal Μ Φ..Α, \ > / xX ὦ / ,
μιμεῖσθαι ἔστιν ὁτὲ μὲν ἀπαγγέλλοντα (ἢ ἕτερόν τι yuyvo-
ef 7 OR ὃς \ ae \
μενον, ὥσπερ ὍὍμηρος ποιεῖ, ἢ ὡς τὸν αὐτὸν Kal μὴ μετα-
7, x /, e / tee a \
βάλλοντα), ἢ πάντας ὡς πράττοντας καὶ ἐνεργοῦντας [τοὺς
/ > \ \ 4 - ς / ,
μιμουμένους]. ἐν τρισὶ δὴ ταύταις διαφοραῖς ἡ μίμησίς 2
> ς Ν > Ὁ 7 > ν ἃ » Tats ef
25 ἐστιν, ὡς εἴπομεν κατ᾽ ἀρχάς, ἐν ols Te καὶ ἃ Kal ὥς. ὥστε
Tinka Wy eet SALW SET », Teh τ / a -
τῇ μὲν ὁ αὐτὸς ἂν εἴη μιμητὴς .Ομήρῳ Σοφοκλῆς, μιμοῦνται
\ ” / al \? / / \
yap ἄμφω σπουδαίους, τῇ δὲ ᾿Αριστοφάνει, mpatrovtTas yap
μιμοῦνται καὶ δρῶντας ἄμφω. ὅθεν καὶ δράματα καλεῖ- 3
/ > / Ὁ nr n \ Ν
σθαί τινες αὐτά φασιν, ὅτι μιμοῦνται δρῶντας. διὸ καὶ
30 ἀντιποιοῦνται τῆς Te τρωγῳδίας καὶ τῆς κωμῳδίας οἱ Δω-
a a \ \ , Ω A “ > -
ριεῖς (τῆς μὲν γὰρ κωμῳδίας οἱ Μεγαρεῖς οἵ τε ἐνταῦθα
ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς δημοκρατίας γενομένης, καὶ οἱ ἐκ
Σικελίας, ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ ἣν ᾿Ἐπτίχαρμος ὁ ποιητὴς <ov> πολλῷ
πρότερος ὧν Χιωνίδου καὶ Μάγνητος, καὶ τῆς τρωγῳδίας
” Ait hs ΄, , WE yeu) =
35 ἔνιοι τῶν ἐν Πελοποννήσῳ)" ποιούμενοι TA ὀνόματα σημεῖον"
αὐτοὶ μὲν γὰρ κώμας τὰς περιοικίδας καλεῖν φασιν, ᾿Αθη-
/ \ / ς \ > > \ 6 /
vatous δὲ δήμους, ὡς κωμῳδοὺς οὐκ ἀπὸ τοῦ κωμάζειν λεχ-
θέντας ἀλλὰ τῇ κατὰ κώμας πλάνῃ ἀτιμαζομένους ἐκ τοῦ
1480 ἄστεως, καὶ τὸ ποιεῖν αὐτοὶ μὲν δρᾶν, ᾿Αθηναίους δὲ
[4 4 \ \ i al a
πράττειν προσαγορεύειν. περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν διαφορῶν 4

/ a -“
καὶ πόσαι καὶ τίνες τῆς μιμήσεως εἰρήσθω ταῦτα.

21. ὁτὲ μὲν... γιγνόμενον fort. leg. <> ὁτὲ μὲν ἀπαγγέλλοντα -ὁτὲ δ᾽ >
ἕτερόν τι γιγνόμενον Bywater sec. Gumposch. 28, πάντας] fort. seclu-
dendum (Bywater): πάντα I. Casaubon. τοὺς μιμουμένους seclusi. 25.
καὶ ἃ add. apogr, 33. οὐ addidi. 36. αὐτοὶ et ᾿Αθηναίους Spengel :
οὗτοι et ᾿Αθηναῖοι codd. 1448 Ὁ 1. καὶ τὸ ποιεῖν. . . προσαγορεύειν
om. Arabs.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS III. 1—4 13

being the same, and the objects the same, the poet may
imitate by narration—in which case he can either take
another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own
person, unchanged—or he may imitate by making all his
actors live and move before us.

These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the
three differences which distinguish artistic imitation,—
the means, the objects,and the manner. So that from one
point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the same kind
as Homer-——for both imitate higher types of character ;
from another point of view, of the same kind as Aristo-

phanes— fox hoth.._ imitate PCISONSnACHAGnAC... Loing

Hence, some say, the name of ‘drama’ is given to such 3
poems, as_representin ion. For the same reason the

Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy.
The claim to Comedy is put forward by the Megarians,—
not only by those of Greece proper, who allege that it
originated under their democracy, but also by the
Megarians of Sicily ; the poet Epicharmus, who lived not
long before Chionides and Magnes, being from their
country. Tragedy too is claimed by certain Dorians of
the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the
evidence of language. Villages, they say, are by them
called κῶμαι, by the Athenians δῆμοι: and they assume
that the name Comedians is derived not from κωμάζειν,
‘to revel, but from the performers wandering about
14480 the villages (κῶμαι), when still excluded from the city.
They add also that the Dorian word for ‘ doing’ is δρᾶν,
and the Athenian, πράττειν.
This may suffice as to the number and nature of the 4

various modes of imitation.

14 IV. 1—8. 1448 Ὁ 4—28

a A
“ IV ἐοίκασι δὲ γεννῆσαι μὲν ὅλως THY ποιητικὴν αἰτίαι δύο
\ \ Φ ’ὔ / \ rn A
5 τινὲς Kal αὗται φυσικαί. τό τε yap μιμεῖσθαι σύμφυτον 2
lal > , > / > / \ / /
τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ παίδων ἐστί, καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρουσι
n Μ 4 μὴ , / 2 Ν \ /
τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅτι μιμητικώτατόν ἐστι Kal Tas μαθή-
σεις ποιεῖται διὰ μιμήσεως τὰς πρώτας, καὶ τὸ χαίρειν
τοῖς μιμήμασι πάντας. σημεῖον δὲ τούτου τὸ συμβαῖνον 3
ιν ᾿.4, -“ »” ° A \ > \ lal . lal ͵7 Ν
10 ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων᾽ ἃ γὰρ αὐτὰ Χυπηρῶς ὁρῶμεν, τούτων τὰς
: SES 4 \ 4 > / / a e
εἰκόνας τὰς μάλιστα ἠκριβωμένας χαίρομεν θεωροῦντες, οἷον
θ / A 6 > rg \ r Μ δὲ 4
ηρίων τε μορφὰς τῶν ἀτιμοτάτων καὶ νεκρῶν. αἴτιον
/ a /
καὶ τούτου, ὅτι μανθάνειν οὐ μόνον τοῖς φιλοσόφοις ἥδιστον
a e , > \ a
ἀλλὰ Kal τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοίως, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ βραχὺ Kowwvod-
> rn ὃ \ \ a , \ > / c aA “

15 σιν αὐτοῦ. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο χαίρουσι τὰς εἰκόνας ὁρῶντες, ὅτι 5
συμβαίνει θεωροῦντας μανθάνειν καὶ συλλογίζεσθαι τί ἕκα-
στον, οἷον ὅτι οὗτος ἐκεῖνος, ἐπεὶ ἐὰν μὴ τύχῃ προεωρακώς,

\ \
οὐχ ἡ μίμημα ποιήσει τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ διὰ THY ἀπερ-
/
γασίαν ἢ τὴν χροιὰν ἢ διὰ τοιαύτην τινὰ ἄλλην αἰτίαν.
\ 4 \ » at.) a tal Ν a ς /
20 κατὰ φύσιν δὴ ὄντος ἡμῖν τοῦ μιμεῖσθαι Kal THs ἁρμονίας 6
\ - € lal A ἣν / oe / 7 ε oy
καὶ τοῦ ῥυθμοῦ, τὰ yap μέτρα OTL μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν
> / >’ » n / \ > / \
ἐστι φανερόν, ἐξ ἀρχῆς πεφυκότες Kal αὐτὰ μάλιστα κατὰ
\ fal .
μικρὸν προάγοντες ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχε-
διασμάτων. διεσπάσθη δὲ κατὰ τὰ οἰκεῖα ἤθη ἡ ποίησις" 7
ε \ \ / \ \ > a 7 \
25 οἱ μὲν yap σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξεις Kal
\ n 7 op ὁ 7, \ an + n
TAS TOV τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, πρώ-
/ a A :
Tov ψόγους ποιοῦντες, ὥσπερ ἅτεροι ὕμνους Kal ἐγκώμια.

n ἈΝ 5 \ Ὅ / 1) \ », » a a
TOV μὲν οὖν πρὸ Opnpou οὐδενὸς ἔχομεν εἰπεῖν τοιοῦτον 8

5. αὗται ΔΡορτ. : αὐταὶ A°. 18. τούτου apogr.: τοῦτο AS, 18.
οὐχ 7 Hermann: οὐχὶ codd. 20. δὴ coni. Vahlen (Beitr.): δὲ codd.
22. καὶ αὐτὰ) πρὸς αὐτὰ Ald., Bekker. 27. ἅτεροι Spengel: ἕτεροι

codd,

' ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 1—7 15

Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two
causes, each of them lying deep in our nature. First, the 2
instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood,
one difference between him and other animals being “that
he is the most imitative of creatures ; and through imita-
tion he acquires his earliest learning. And, indeed, every
one feels a natural pleasure in things imitated. There is 3
evidence of this in the effect produced by works of art.
Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we de-
light to contemplate when reproduced with absolute fidelity:
such as the forms of the most ignoble beasts and of dead
bodies. The cause of this again is, that to learn is a 4
lively pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men in
general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more
limited. Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing 5
a likeness is, that in contemplating it they are en-
gaged in learning —they reason and infer what each object
is: ‘this, they say, ‘is the man.’ For if you happen
not to have seen the original, the pleasure will be due not
to the imitation as such, but to the execution, the colour-
ing, or some such other cause.

Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, 6
there is the instinct for harmony and rhythm, metre being
manifestly a species of rhythm. Persons, therefore, with
this natural gift little by little improved upon their early
efforts, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. —

Poetry now branched off in two directions, according 7
to the individual character of the writers. The more
elevated poets imitated noble actions, and the actions οἵ.
good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of
meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former

16 IV. 8—12. 1448 Ὁ 29—1449 ἃ 13

Ν ,\ ¢ / > /
ποίημα, εἰκὸς δὲ εἶναι πολλούς, ἀπὸ δὲ Ὁ μήρου ἀρξαμένοις
e le) >
30 ἔστιν, οἷον ἐκείνου ὁ Mapyirns καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. ἐν οἷς κα-
a s A ee a
τὰ τὸ ἁρμόττον ἰαμβεῖον ἦλθε μέτρον, διὸ καὶ ἰαμβεῖον Ka-
an a a , / > , e \
λεῖται νῦν, ὅτι ἐν τῷ μέτρῳ τούτῳ ἰάμβιξον ἀλλήλους" Kal 9
BFP an r € \ ς “ ¢ δὲ 5.
ἐγένοντο τῶν παλαιῶν οἱ μὲν ἡρωικῶν οἱ δὲ ἰάμβων ποιη-
a \ @¢
ταί. ὥσπερ δὲ Kal Ta σπουδαῖα μάλιστα ποιητὴς ᾿“Ομηρος
5 “ /
35 ἦν, μόνος yap οὐχ ὅτι εὖ ἀλλ᾽ [ὅτι] καὶ μιμήσεις δραμα-
“ / /
τικὰς ἐποίησεν, οὕτως Kal τὰ τῆς κωμῳδίας σχήματα
fal / \ \ an
πρῶτος ὑπέδειξεν, οὐ ψόγον ἀλλὰ TO γελοῖον δραματο-
ef a ΤΑ
ποιήσας: ὁ yap Mapyirns ἀνάλογον ἔχει, ὥσπερ ἰλιὰς
Ἦν τἀν / \ \ / ef 2 \
49a καὶ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια πρὸς Tas τραγῳδίας, οὕτω Kal οὗτος πρὸς
\ / ’ὔ \ rn δί \
Tas κωμῳδίας. παραφανείσης δὲ THs τραγῳδίας Kai κω- 10
’, ti, LT ae / \ ,ὔ ε rn \ \
μῳδίας οἱ ἐφ᾽ ἑκατέραν τὴν ποίησιν ὁρμῶντες κατὰ τὴν
> / 4 ς \ > \ a >7 ae Jen 4
οἰκείαν φύσιν οἱ μὲν ἀντὶ τῶν ἰάμβων κωμῳδοποιοὶ ἐγέ-
5 vovTo, of δὲ ἀντὶ τῶν ἐπῶν τραγῳδοδιδάσκαλοι διὰ τὸ
/ / n
μείζονα καὶ ἐντιμότερα τὰ σχήματα εἶναι ταῦτα ἐκείνων.
\ \ 5 > - a iS ap 4 ς δί a
TO μὲν οὖν ἐπισκοπεῖν εἰ ap ἔχει ἤδη ἡ τραγῳδία τοῖς 11
715. ς a x Υ 9. υ > δ N , x \
εἴδεσιν ἱκανῶς ἢ οὔ, αὐτό Te καθ αὑτὸ κρίνεται ἢ [val]
/ ’ ’
καὶ πρὸς τὰ θέατρα, ἄλλος λόγος. γενομένη <d > οὖν ἀπ᾿ 12
- 4
10 ἀρχῆς αὐτοσχεδιαστική, Kal αὐτὴ Kal ἡ κωμῳδία, Kal ἡ μὲν
\ “ / -"
ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, ἡ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν τὰ φαλ-
A “ a cal /
Mixa ἃ ἔτι Kal viv ἐν πολλαῖς τῶν πόλεων διαμένει νο-

μιζόμενα, κατὰ μικρὸν ηὐξήθη προαγόντων ὅσον ἐγίγνετο

35. alterum ὅτι seclus. Bonitz, quod confirm. Arabs. δραματικὰς Ac:
δραματικῶς apogr. 1449 a 7. εἰ dpa ἔχει apogr.: παρέχει A®: Gp’ ἔχει
Vahlen. 8. κρίνεται ἢ vat. | καὶ A°: κρίνεται εἶναι καὶ apogr.: κρῖναι καὶ
Forchhammer : κρίνεται ἢ [vat.] καὶ Bursian: fort. leg. κρίνεται εἶναι ἢ
καὶ. 9. γενομένη οὖν apogr. : γενομένης οὖν AS: γενομένη δ᾽ οὖν Bekker.
10. αὐτοσχεδιαστικὴ apogr., Bekker: αὐτοσχεδιαστικῆς AS. 12. δια-
μένει apogr. : διαμένειν ΑΚ, ;

mo)
—_
_—

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 7—12 17

did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men.
A poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down 8
to any author earlier than Homer; though many such
writers probably there were. But from Homer onward,
instances can be cited,—his Margites, for example, and
other similar compositions. The iambic metre was here
introduced, as best fitted to the subject: hence the
measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure,
being that in which the lampoons were written.

Thus the older poets were distinguished as writers 9
either of heroic or of iambic verse. As, in the serious
style, Homer is preeminent among poets, standing alone
not only in the excellence, but also in the dramatic form
of his imitations, so he too first sketched out the main
lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead of
writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same
relation to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey do to
Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy had once 10
appeared, writers applied themselves to one or other
species of poetry, following their native bent. They com-
posed Comedies in place of lampoons, and Tragedies in
place of Epic poems, the. newer forms of poetry being
higher and more highly esteemed than the old.

Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper 11
types or not; and whether it is to be judged in itself, or
in relation also to the stage,—this raises another question.
Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy—was at 12
first mere improvisation. The one originated with the
leaders of the dithyrambic, the other with those of the
phallic songs, which are still in use in many of our cities.

Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each new element
C

18 IV. 12—V. 2. 1449 a 14—37

φανερὸν αὐτῆς, καὶ πολλὰς μεταβολὰς μεταβαλοῦσα ἡ
bi > / > \ \ Sd ΄ὔ \ , 1 3

15 τραγῳδία ἐπαύσατο, ἐπεὶ ἔσχε THY αὑτῆς φύσιν. καὶ τό

x ε n n > “.Ἁ > / tal > 4

Te τῶν ὑποκριτῶν πλῆθος ἐξ ἑνὸς eis δύο πρῶτος Αἰσχύ-

λος ἤγαγε καὶ τὰ τοῦ χοροῦ ἠλάττωσε καὶ τὸν λόγον

πρωταγωνιστὴν παρεσκεύασεν, τρεῖς δὲ καὶ σκηνογραφίαν
Σοφοκλῆς. ἔτι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος ἐκ μικρῶν μύθων καὶ λέ- 14

20 ἕεως γελοίας διὰ τὸ ἐκ σατυρικοῦ μεταβαλεῖν ὀψὲ ἀπε-
σεμνύνθη. τό τε μέτρον ἐκ τετραμέτρου ἰαμβεῖον ἐγένετο"
τὸ μὲν γὰρ πρῶτον τετραμέτρῳ ἐχρῶντο διὰ τὸ σατυρικὴν

δυο Ἣν 7 5 \ / / \ /
καὶ ὀρχηστικωτέραν εἶναι τὴν ποίησιν, λέξεως δὲ γενομένης
αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις τὸ οἰκεῖον μέτρον εὗρε, μάλιστα γὰρ λεκτι-

25 κὸν τῶν μέτρων τὸ ἰαμβεῖόν ἐστιν: σημεῖον δὲ τούτου"
πλεῖστα γὰρ ἰαμβεῖα λέγομεν ἐν τῇ διαλέκτῳ τῇ πρὸς
ἀλλήλους, ἑξάμετρα δὲ ὀλυγάκις καὶ ἐκβαίνοντες τῆς λεκ-
τικῆς ἁρμονίας. ἔτι δὲ ἐπεισοδίων πλήθη. καὶ τὰ ἄλλ᾽
« “ - / ” econ 9.7) U4
ὡς ἕκαστα κοσμηθῆναι λέγεται ἔστω ἡμῖν εἰρημένα" 15

, >
30 πολὺ yap ἂν ἴσως ἔργον εἴη διεξιέναι καθ᾽ ἕκαστον.

ἥν ἡ δὲ κωμῳδία ἐστὶν ὥσπερ εἴπομεν μίμησις φαυ-
λοτέρων μέν, οὐ μέντοι κατὰ πᾶσαν κακίαν, ἀλλὰ τοῦ
> ΟΣ \ a / \ ay al te eg
αἰσχροῦ ἐστι TO γελοῖον μόριον" TO γὰρ γελοῖον ἐστιν ἁμάρ-
7 Ν 9 ERA \ > /
τημά TL Kal αἶσχος ἀνώδυνον καὶ οὐ φθαρτικόν, οἷον
7f\ \ a / > / \ ‘a
35 εὐθὺς TO γελοῖον πρόσωπον αἰσχρόν τι Kal διεστραμμένον
v > / e \ Ss na / / \
ἄνευ ὀδύνης. αἱ μὲν οὖν τῆς τραγῳδίας μεταβάσεις καὶ 2
δι᾿ ὧν ἐγένοντο οὐ λελήθασιν, ἡ δὲ κωμῳδία διὰ τὸ μὴ
19. <7 λέξις ἐκ:- λέξεως Christ. Omissum vocab. collato Arabe id esse
Margoliouth suspic. cuius vice Graeculi ὑψηγορία usurpant. 28. ἄλλα
ὡς apogr.: ἄλλως A®: ἄλλα οἷς Hermann. 29. περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων

τοσαῦτα add, Ald. ante ἔστω. 32. ἀλλὰ «κατὰ τὸ γελοῖον, > τοῦ -- δ᾽ --
αἰσχροῦ Christ.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 12—V. 2 19

that showed itself was in turn developed. Having passed
through many changes, it found its natural form, and
there it stopped.

Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he dimin- 13
ished the importance of the Chorus, and assigned the
leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles raised the number
of actors to three, and added scene-painting. It was not 14
till late that the short plot was discarded for one of
greater compass, and the grotesque diction of the earlier
satyric form, for the stately manner of Tragedy. The
iambic measure then replaced the trochaic tetrameter,
which was originally employed when the poetry was of
the satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing.
Once dialogue had come in, Nature herself discovered the
appropriate measure. Jor the iambic is, of all measures,
the most colloquial: we see it in the fact that con-
versational speech runs into iambic form more frequently
than into any other kind of verse; rarely into hexameters,
and only when we drop the colloquial intonation. The
number of ‘episodes’ or acts was also increased, and the ©
other- embellishments added, of which tradition tells.
These we need not here discuss; to enter into them in 15
detail would, probably, be tedious.

Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters
of a lower type,—not, however, in the full sense of the
word bad ; for the Ludicrous is merely a subdivision of
the ugly. It may be defined as a defect or ugliness
which is not painful or destructive. Thus, for example, the |
comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not cause pain.

The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, 2
and the authors of these changes are not unknown. It

20 V. 2—VI. 2. 1449 a 38—1449 b 24

1449 σπουδάζεσθαι ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἔλαθεν" Kal yap χορὸν κωμῳδῶν
ὀψέ ποτε ὁ ἄρχων ἔδωκεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐθελονταὶ ἦσαν. ἤδη δὲ
σχήματά τινα αὐτῆς ἐχούσης οἱ λεγόμενοι αὐτῆς ποιηταὶ
μνημονεύονται. τίς δὲ πρόσωπα ἀπέδωκεν ἢ προλόγους 3

5 ἢ πλήθη ὑποκριτῶν καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἠγνόηται. τὸ δὲ
μύθους ποιεῖν [Emixappos καὶ Φόρμις] τὸ μὲν ἐξ ἀρχῆς
ἐκ Σικελίας ἦλθε, τῶν δὲ ᾿Αθήνησιν Κράτης πρῶτος ἦρξεν
ἀφέμενος τῆς ἰαμβικῆς ἰδέας καθόλου ποιεῖν λόγους καὶ

7 ς \ 5 > / a / 7 \ n
μύθους. ἡ μὲν οὖν ἐποποιία TH τραγῳδίᾳ μέχρι μὲν --τοῦ 4

10 διὰ λόγου ἐμ -- μέτρου μίμησις εἶναι σπουδαίων ἠκολούθη-

σεν" τῷ δὲ τὸ μέτρον ἁπλοῦν ἔχειν καὶ ἀπαγγελίαν εἶναι,
/ / » \ Aa / e \ .“ /

ταύτῃ διαφέρουσιν" ἔτι δὲ τῴ μήκει, ἡ μὲν ὅτι μάλιστα πει-

ρᾶται ὑπὸ μίαν περίοδον ἡλίου εἶναι ἢ μικρὸν ἐξαλλάττειν, ἡ

δὲ ἐποποιία ἀόριστος τῷ χρόνῳ, καὶ τούτῳ διαφέρει" καίτοι

15 τὸ πρῶτον ὁμοίως ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις τοῦτο ἐποίουν καὶ ἐν

n » , > ὁ \ \ \ > / \ ,, ", ol
τοῖς ἔπεσιν. μέρη d ἐστὶ τὰ μὲν ταὐτά, τὰ δὲ ἴδια τῆς 5

/ / “ \ / 5 /
τραγῳδίας. διόπερ ὅστις περὶ τραγῳδίας οἷδε σπουδαίας
καὶ φαύλης, οἷδε καὶ περὶ ἐπῶν: ἃ μὲν γὰρ ἐποποιία
», ς / an / ἃ Ν , A » / > a
ἔχει, ὑπάρχει TH τραγῳδίᾳ, ἃ δὲ αὐτῇ, ob πάντα ἐν TH
20 ἐποποιίᾳ.

VI περὶ οὖν τῆς ἐν ἑξαμέτροις μιμητικῆς Kal περὶ
κωμῳδίας ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, περὶ δὲ τραγῳδίας λέγωμεν
> ’ » | > n > / \ / ¢
ἀναλαβόντες αὐτῆς ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων τὸν γινόμενον ὅρον

an > ’ὔ » Φ ,ὔ 7 / /
τῆς οὐσίας. ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας 2
1449 Ὁ 4. προλόγους A®: λόγους Hermann. 6. ᾿Επίχαρμος καὶ Φόρμις
seclus. Susemihl. - ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ ἤστην:- ᾿Ἐπίχαρμος καὶ Φόρμις post ἦλθε
Bywater, collato Themistio, Or. xxvii. p. 337 A, recte, ut opinor. 9.
μέχρι μόνου μέτρου μεγάλου codd.: μέχρι μὲν τοῦ μέτρῳ Tyrwhitt : μέχρι
μόνου «τοῦ διὰ λόγου ἐμ: μέτρου μεγάλου Ueberweg. 12. διαφέρει

Hermann, confirmat Arabs. 19. αὐτῆι A°: αὐτὴ apogr. : αὕτη Reiz.
23. ἀναλαβόντες Bernays: ἀπολαβόντες codd.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS V. 2—VI. 2 21

1449 is otherwise with Comedy, which at first was not seriously

treated. It was late before the Archon appointed a
comic chorus; the performers were till then voluntary.
From the time, however, when Comedy began to assume
certain fixed forms, comic poets, distinctively so called,
are recorded. Who introduced masks, or prologues, or in- 3
creased the number of actors,—these and other similar
details remain unknown. As for the plot, it came originally
from Sicily ; but of Athenian writers Crates was the first
who, abandoning the ‘iambic’ or lampooning form, gener-
alised aa themes and Bie

an 4

Hise aie ae ulated bight a They

differ, in that Epic poetry admits but one kind of metre,
a ee eed
and is narrative in form. They differ, again, in length :

-..-..- ..Ἡ. --.-.. -..

for for Tragedy endeavours, as far as possible, to confine a itself
td a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed
this limit; whereas the Epic action has no limits of time.
This, then, is a second point of difference; though at first the
same freedoni was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry.

Of their constituent parts some are common to both, 5
some peculiar to Tragedy. Whoever, therefore, knows
what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also about Epic
poetry: for all the parts of an Epic poem are found in
Tragedy, but what belongs to Tragedy is not all found in
the Epic poem. ;

Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and
of Comedy; we will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss
Tragedy, resuming its formal definition, as resulting from
what has been already said.

Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is 2)
ca ean

22 VI 2—7. 1449 Ὁ 25—1450 a 10

25 Kal τελείας μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ χωρὶς ἑκά-
- IQA > A / , \ > > >
στῳ τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι᾿ ἀπαγ-
γελίας, δι᾿ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων
παθημάτων κάθαρσιν. λέγω δὲ ἡδυσμένον μὲν λόγον τὸν 8
4 e \ \ ς / \ , \ \ \ »"
ἔχοντα ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος, τὸ δὲ χωρὶς τοῖς
ν \ \ / » , , / “

30 εἴδεσι τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα
διὰ μέλους. ἐπεὶ δὲ πράττοντες ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν, 4
πρῶτον μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἂν εἴη τι μόριον τραγῳδίας ὁ
τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος, εἶτα μελοποιία καὶ λέξις, ἐν τούτοις γὰρ

nr \ 7 / \ /, \ 22% \ n
ποιοῦνται τὴν μίμησιν. λέγω δὲ λέξιν μὲν αὐτὴν τὴν TOV

35 μέτρων σύνθεσιν, μελοποιίαν δὲ ὃ τὴν δύναμιν φανερὰν
” a > \ / > \ / / \
ἔχει πᾶσαν. ἐπεὶ δὲ πράξεως ἐστὶ μίμησις, πράττεται δὲ 5
ὑπὸ τινῶν πραττόντων, ods ἀνάγκη ποιούς τινας εἶναι κατά
τε τὸ ἦθος καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν (διὰ γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὰς

/ 3 /, 7 / \ » ἡ" / r
1450a πράξεις εἶναί φαμεν ποιάς Twas, πέφυκεν δὲ αἰτίας δύο τῶν
/ 9 / \ 3 \ \ 4 \
πράξεων εἶναι, διάνοιαν καὶ ἦθος, καὶ κατὰ ταύτας καὶ

7, ΑΞ s ΄ Ων Ral ἐᾶι \

τυγχάνουσι Kal ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες)" ἔστιν δὴ τῆς μὲν 6

β ε r ς ᾽ὔ / Ν r r \
πράξεως ὁ μῦθος ἡ μίμησις" λέγω yap μῦθον τοῦτον THY
5 σύνθεσιν τῶν πραγμάτων, τὰ δὲ ἤθη, καθ᾽ ὃ ποιούς τινας
εἶναί φαμεν τοὺς πράττοντας, διάνοιαν δέ, ἐν ὅσοις λέγον-

> / / Xx A} to 7 , > uA
τες ἀποδεικνύασίν τι ἢ Kal ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην. ἀνάγκη 7

οὖν πάσης τραγῳδίας μέρη εἶναι ἕξ, καθ᾽ ἃ ποιά τις ἐστὶν
ἡ τραγῳδία" ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶ μῦθος καὶ ἤθη καὶ λέξις καὶ
το διάνοια καὶ ὄψις καὶ μελοποιία. οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται,
25. ἑκάστῳ Tyrwhitt: ἑκάστου codd. 28. παθημάτων corr. apogr. :
μαθημάτων Α5, 29. μέλος] μέτρον Vettori: καὶ μέλος seclus. Tyr-
whitt. 35. μέτρων] ὀνομάτων Hermann, collato 1450 Ὁ 14. 36.
πᾶσαν] πᾶσιν Maggi. 88. διὰ γὰρ τούτων. . . πάντες in parenthesi
Thurot. 1450 a 1. πέφυκεν δὲ apogr.: πέφυκεν A®. airlas Christ:

αἰτία codd. 3. δὴ Eucken: δὲ codd. 4, τοῦτον] τοῦτο Maggi: seclus.
Christ. 5. καθὸ Ac: καθ᾽ ἃ apogr. 8. καθοποία Α“ : καθ᾽ ἃ ποιά apogr.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 2—7 23

serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language
embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the
several kinds being found in separate parts of the play;
in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and
fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. By 3
‘language embellished, I mean language into which
rhythm, ‘harmony,’ and song enter. By ‘the several kinds

in separate parts,’ I mean, that some parts are rendered
through the medium of verse alone, others again with
the aid of song.

. Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it 4
nocedeanile follows, in the first place, that Scenic equip-
ment will be a part of Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction,
for these are the means of imitation. By- ‘ Diction’
I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words:
as for ‘Song, it is a term whose full sense is well

understood.

Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an 5
action implies personal agents, who necessarily possess
certain qualities both of character and thought. It is

1450a these that determine the qualities of actions themselves ;
these—thought and character—are the two natural causes
from which actions spring: on these causes, again, ‘all
success or,failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the imita- 6
tion of the action :—for by plot I here mean the arrange-

NR eee

ment of _the ‘incidents. By Character I mean_ that in
virtue of which we ascribe certain ‘qualities t to the agents.
By Thought, that whereby a statement is proved, or a
general truth expressed. Every Tragedy, therefore, must 7
have six parts, which parts determine its quality—

namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Scenery, Song.

24 VI. 7—13. 1450 a II—35

“ /
δύο μέρη ἐστίν, ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν, ἃ δὲ μιμοῦνται, τρία,
nr Ὶ /
καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδέν. τούτοις μὲν οὖν ὀλίγου αὐτῶν 8
Lal wn \
«ἅπαντες:-- ὡς εἰπεῖν κέχρηνται τοῖς εἴδεσιν" καὶ yap
rn a I
ὄψεις ἔχει πᾶν Kal ἦθος καὶ μῦθον καὶ λέξιν καὶ μέλος
15 καὶ διάνοιαν ὡσαύτως. μέγιστον δὲ τούτων ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν 9
\
πραγμάτων σύστασις: ἡ γὰρ τραγῳδία pipnois ἐστιν
\ 7
οὐκ ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ πράξεως καὶ βίου καὶ εὐδαιμονίας
\ ὃ ᾿ e δὲ ἠδ / “we ὃ 7
«καὶ κακοδαιμονίας, ἡ δὲ εὐδαιμονία-- καὶ ἡ κακοδαιμονία
» 7 3 \ \ \ , ne > / >
ἐν πράξει ἐστὶν καὶ τὸ τέλος πρᾶξίς τις ἐστίν, ov ποι-
-eloty ube \ Ν \ "0 ,ὔ i a ὃ
20 oTns* εἰσὶν δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ἤθη ποιοί τινες, κατὰ δὲ τὰς 10
/ > / Xx > / » Ψ Φ' τὰν
πράξεις εὐδαίμονες ἢ τοὐναντίον. οὔκουν ὅπως τὰ ἤθη μι-
μήσωνται πράττουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἤθη συμπαραλαμβάνουσιν
διὰ τὰς πράξεις" ὥστε τὰ πράγματα καὶ ὁ μῦθος τέλος
na δί Ν δὲ aN / e 7 5, Ν 11
τῆς τραγῳδίας, τὸ δὲ τέλος μέγιστον ἁπάντων. ἔτι ἄνευ
Ν 7 > x / / ν \ > lal /
25 μὲν πράξεως οὐκ ἂν γένοιτο τραγῳδία, ἄνευ δὲ ἠθῶν γέ-
>» e \ a 7 n / »/ /
voit ἄν. αἱ γὰρ τῶν νέων τῶν πλείστων ἀήθεις τραγῳδίαι
εἰσὶν καὶ ὅλως ποιηταὶ πολλοὶ τοιοῦτοι, οἷον καὶ τῶν γρα-
n \ 4
φέων Ζεῦξις πρὸς Πολύγνωτον πέπονθεν" ὁ μὲν yap 11ο-
7 \
λύγνωτος ἀγαθὸς ἠθογράφος, ἡ δὲ Ζεύξιδος γραφὴ οὐδὲν
30 ἔχεν ἦθος. ἔτι ἐάν τις ἐφεξῆς θῇ ῥήσεις ἠθικὰς καὶ λέξει 12
/ fol
καὶ διανοίᾳ εὖ πεποιημένας, ov ποιήσει ὃ ἣν τῆς τραγῳ-
/ Μ > \ \ -
δίας ἔργον, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις
7 δί », δὲ DO. \ ? ᾿
κεχρημένη τραγῳδία, ἔχουσα δὲ μῦθον καὶ. σύστασιν πραγ-
bt Ν \ ee \ / δ τῷ
μάτων. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἡ 18
δί an 40 7 > 7 “ “A \ 2
35 τραγῳδία, τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστίν, αἵ Te περιπέτειαι καὶ ἀνα-.

12. οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν ὡς εἰπεῖν codd.: ὀλίγου αὐτῶν -- ἅπαντες: ὡς εἰπεῖν
Bywater: οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν «ἀλλὰ πάντες:- ὡς εἰπεῖν Bursian. 18.
-- καὶ κακοδαιμονίας... > coni, Vahlen. 22. πράττουσιν] πράττοντας
ποιοῦσιν coni. Vahlen. συμπαραλαμβάνουσιν Spengel : συμπεριλαμβάνουσιν
Ac, 80. λέξει καὶ διανοίᾳ Vahlen: λέξεις καὶ διανοίας codd. 81.
οὐ add. ΔΡορτ. : ‘nequaquam’ Arabs: fort. οὐδαμῶς Margoliouth.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 7—13 25

Two of the parts constitute the means of imitation, one
the manner, and three the objects of imitation. And these
complete the list. These elements have been employed, 8
we may say, by almost all poets; in fact, every play con-
tains Scenic accessories as well as Character, Plot, Diction,
Song, and Thought.

But most important of all is the structure of the 9
incidents. For Tragedy i is an imitation, not of men, but
of an action and of life, —of happiness and misery ; ; and
happiness a1 and misery. “consist. i ἴῃ action, ‘the 16 end of human
life_being a mode..of..action, not. ἃ quality. Now the 10
characters of men determine their qualities, but it is by
their actions that they are happy or the reverse. Dra-
matic action, therefore, is not with a view to the repre-
sentation of character: character comes in as 18. subsidiary
tg the action. Hence the incidents a1 and th the plot ἃ are_the
end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all.
Again, without action there cannot be a tragedy ; ; there 11
may be without character. The tragedies of most of our
modern poets fail in the rendering of character; and of
poets in general this is often true. It is the same in
painting; and here lies the difference between Zeuxis
and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates character well:
the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality. Again, 12
if you string together a set of speeches expressive of
character, and well finished in point of diction and
thought, you will not produce the essential tragic effect
nearly so well as with a play, which, however deficient in
these respects, yet has a plot and artistically constructed
incidents. Besides which, the most powerful elements of 13
emotional interest.in.Tragedy—Reversals of Fortune, and_

Ψ ι

26 VI. 14—19. 1450 ἃ 36—1450 b 19

a r n /
γνωρίσεις. ἔτι σημεῖον ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἐγχειροῦντες ποιεῖν mpo- 14
n a a Xx \
τερον δύνανται τῇ λέξει Kal τοῖς ἤθεσιν ἀκριβοῦν ἢ τὰ
n \ \
πράγματα συνιστάναι, οἷον καὶ oi πρῶτοι ποιηταὶ σχεδὸν
\ ς la) n
ἅπαντες. ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἷον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς Tpa-
\
40 γῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη. παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ 15
- a / an /
1450b ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς" εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις
7ὔ
φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκο-
7 ὌΝ 5, 7 / \ ὃ \ 4
γραφήσας εἰκόνα. ἔστιν Te μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην
cal a a
μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων. τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια. τοῦτο dé 16
/ \ /
5 ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα Kal τὰ ἁρμόττοντα,
[4 aA an / n n AA ge a »”
ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ PHTOPLKNS Epyov
a a / U4 e
ἐστίν: of μὲν yap ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ
a n \ rn ἃ ei
δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς. ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ THY 17
/ ¢e - rn x
προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἢ Tpoat-
n / a /
το ρεῖται ἢ φεύγει" διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν
> ὰν + τ a x , ε /
οἷς μηδ᾽ ὅλως ἔστιν 6 τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων.
ὃ 7 δέ > e > ὃ vA "¢ ς » rx ¢ > 4
ιάνοια δέ, ἐν οἷς ἀποδεικνύουσί TL ὡς ἔστιν ἢ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν
x / . cal /
ἢ καθόλου τι ἀποφαίνονται. τέταρτον δὲ [τῶν μὲν λόγων] ἡ 18
7 /
λέξις. λέγω δέ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρηται, λέξιν εἶναι τὴν
\ “ > / e / a Nee Ye Se). nr > / \
15 διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίας ἑρμηνείαν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ
n / \ \ n \ rn
ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει THY αὐτὴν δύναμιν. τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν 19
A / fal
[πέντε] ἡ μελοποιία μέγιστον τῶν ἡδυσμάτων, ἡ δὲ ὄψις
Ν / : : a na
ψυχαγωγικὸν μέν, ἀτεχνότατον δὲ καὶ ἥκιστα οἰκεῖον τῆς

ποιητικῆς" <lo>ws γὰρ τῆς τραγῳδίας δύναμις καὶ ἄνευ

88, συνιστάναι Thurot: συνίστασθαι codd. 40, παραπλήσιον. .. εἰκόνα
supra collocavit post πραγμάτων v. 84 Castelvetro. 1450 Ὁ 3. τε
codd.: γὰρ Hermann. 9. ὁποία tis* Bekker, omisso ἐν οἷς οὐκ
ἔστι... φεύγει. Sic Margoliouth collato Arabe. Tl. ὅ τι apogr.: 6
τις AS, 13. τῶν μὲν λόγων seclusi. 17. πέντε A®: seclus. Spengel :
πέμπτον apogr. 19. ἴσως Meiser: ὡς Αὐ : ἡ apogr.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 14—19 27

Recognition scenes—are parts of the plot. A further 14

proof is, that novices in the art are able to elaborate their
diction and ethical portraiture, before they can frame the
incidents. It is the same with almost all early poets.

The Plot, th then, | is the first principle, and, as it were,
the soul of ‘of the» tragedy : “Character holds the second place.

A similar fact is seen in painting. ~The most beautiful 15

1450 Ὁ colours, laid on confusedly, will not give as much pleasure
as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is the
imitation of an action, and of the agents, mainly with a
view to the action.

Third in order is the Thought,—+that is, the faculty of 16
saying what is possible and pertinent in given circum-
stances. In the case of the dramatic dialogue, this is
the function of the political or the rhetorical art: for the
older poets make their characters speak the language of
civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the
rhetoricians, Character is that which reveals moral 17
purpose : it shows what. “kind of things, in cases of doubt,

a man chooses or avoids. A dialogue, therefore, which
in no way indicates what the speaker chooses or avoids,
is not expressive of character, Thought, on the other
hand, is that whereby we prove that something is or is
not, or state a general maxim.

Fourth comes the Diction; by which I mean, as has 18
been already said, the expression_of our meaning in
words ; and its essence is the same both in verse and
prose.

Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place 19
among the embellishments.

The Scenery has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its

28 VI. 19—VII. 4. 1450 ἢ 20—1451 a I

“ Ν / \ \

20 ἀγῶνος καὶ ὑποκριτῶν ἔστιν, ἔτε δὲ κυριωτέρα περὶ τὴν
lal lal Ὁ ἐν nr a

ἀπεργασίαν τῶν ὄψεων ἡ τοῦ σκευοποιοῦ τέχνη τῆς τῶν

ποιητῶν ἐστιν.

,ὔ / nr ,

Vil διωρισμένων δὲ τούτων, λέγωμεν μετὰ ταῦτα ποίαν
nr fal A r

τινὰ δεῖ τὴν σύστασιν εἶναι TOV πρωγμάτων, ἐπειδὴ τοῦτο

fal » / / -“ \

25 καὶ πρῶτον καὶ μέγιστον τῆς τραγῳδίας ἐστίν. κεῖται δὴ

- 3 /

ἡμῖν THY τραγῳδίαν τελείας καὶ ὅλης πράξεως εἶναι μί-
y

μησιν ἐχούσης τι μέγεθος" ἔστιν γὰρ ὅλον καὶ μηδὲν ἔχον
,ὔ / > \ ἂν > \ \ 7 \

μέγεθος. ὅλον δέ ἐστιν τὸ ἔχον ἀρχὴν Kal μέσον καὶ τε-

ἃ \ 3

λευτήν. ἀρχὴ δέ ἐστιν ὃ αὐτὸ μὲν μὴ ἐξ ἀνάγκης μετ

+ 3 / >. τ an > of / 3 x /

30 ἄλλο ἐστίν, μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο δ᾽ ἕτερον πέφυκεν εἶναι ἢ γίνεσθαι,
τελευτὴ δὲ τοὐναντίον ὃ αὐτὸ μετ᾽ ἄλλο πέφυκεν εἶναι ἢ
ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἢ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ, μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο ἄλλο οὐδέν,

/ 1, A \ By ν > ΕΖ Ν ΕῚ > - “
μέσον δὲ ὃ καὶ αὐτὸ per ἄλλο καὶ μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο ἕτερον.
ὃ ψῳ .Ὅ \ n 9 / 72» « ,ὔ »

εἴ ἄρα τοὺς συνεστῶτας εὖ μύθους μήθ᾽ ὁπόθεν ἔτυχεν

35 ἄρχεσθαι μήθ᾽ ὅπου ἔτυχε τελευτᾶν, ἀλλὰ κεχρῆσθαι ταῖς

» ͵ ἰδέ 5 δ᾽ 5 \ Ἀ Ν \ a » er
εἰρημέναις ἰδέαις. ἔτι δ᾽ ἐπεὶ τὸ καλὸν Kal ζῷον καὶ ἅπαν

" fal / al /
πρᾶγμα ὃ συνέστηκεν ἐκ τινῶν οὐ μόνον ταῦτα τεταγμένα

a » > \ \ / ς / \ \ ως \
δεῖ ἔχειν ἀλλὰ Kal μέγεθος ὑπάρχειν μὴ TO τυχόν" TO

Ν Ν 5 / \ / 5 7 x ΕΣ /
yap καλὸν ἐν μεγέθει καὶ τάξει ἐστίν, διὸ οὔτε πάμμικρον

Ν / Xo a a \ e θ /, > \
40 ἄν τι γένοιτο καλὸν ζῴον, συγχεῖται yap ἡ θεωρία ἐγγὺς

rn /
τοῦ ἀναισθήτου χρόνου γινομένη, οὔτε παμμέγεθες, οὐ γὰρ.

14618 ἅμα ἡ θεωρία γίνεται ἀλλ᾽ οἴχεται τοῖς θεωροῦσι τὸ ἕν

25. δὴ Bywater: δ᾽ A°. 29. μὴ ἐξ ἀνάγκης codd. : ἐξ ἀνάγκης μὴ Pazzi.
41. χρόνου seclus, Bonitz.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 19—VII. 4 29

own, but, of all the parts, it is the least artistic, and con-
nected least with poetic theory. For the power of Tragedy,
we may be sure, is felt even apart from representation
and actors. Besides, the production of scenic effects de-
pends more on the art of the stage manager than on that
of the poet.

VII These principles being established, let us now discuss
the proper structure of the Plot, since this is the first,
and also the most important part of Tragedy.

Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an 2
imitation of an action, that is complete, and whole, and ᾿
of a certain magnitude; for there may be a whole that
is‘wanting in magnitude. A whole is s that which has 3
beginning, middle, and end. A beginning is that which
does not itself follow anything by causal necessity, but
after which something naturally is or comes to be. An
end, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally follows
some other thing, either by necessity, or in the regular
course of events, but has nothing following it. A middle
is that which follows something as some other thing
follows it. A well constructed plot, therefore, must
neither begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to the
type here described.

Again, if an object be beautiful—either a living 4
organism or a whole composed of parts—it must not

only have its parts in orderly arrangement, it must also
be of a certain magnitude. Hence no exceedingly small
animal can be beautiful; for the view of it is confused, -
the object being seen in an almost imperceptible moment
of time. Nor, again, can an animal of vast size be
beautiful; for as the eye cannot take it all in at once,

VIIl

30 VIL 4—VIIL 3. 1451 a 2—25

fol / / Μ
καὶ τὸ ὅλον ἐκ τῆς θεωρίας, οἷον εἰ μυρίων σταδίων εἴη
fal a cal / » ie: oo ΄“
ζῷον" ὥστε δεῖ καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν σωμάτων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν 5

lal \ 3 “
ἕῴων ἔχειν μὲν μέγεθος, τοῦτο δὲ εὐσύνοπτον εἶναι, οὕτω
ek 8 n / ΝΜ Ν an nr δὲ > /
καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν μύθων ἔχειν μὲν μῆκος, τοῦτο δὲ εὐμνημόνευ-
a ε \ rn
Tov εἶναι." τοῦ μήκους ὅρος «ὁ: μὲν πρὸς τοὺς ἀγῶνας 6
\ \ yy > - / 3 Ae > \ ΝΜ e \
καὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν οὐ τῆς τέχνης ἐστίν εἰ γὰρ ἔδει ἑκατὸν
\ 4 /
τραγῳδίας ἀγωνίζεσθαι, πρὸς κλεψύδρας ἂν ἠγωνίζοντο,
/ ςε \
ὥσπερ ποτὲ Kal ἄλλοτε εἰώθασιν. ὁ δὲ κατ᾽ αὐτὴν THYT
/ a / Ὁ 34 \ ξε / / a
φύσιν τοῦ πράγματος ὅρος, ἀεὶ μὲν ὁ μείζων μέχρι τοῦ
\ 4
σύνδηλος εἶναι καλλίων ἐστὶ κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος, ὡς δὲ
e n / > n 2 4 46. \ \ > Xd
ἁπλῶς διορίσαντας εἰπεῖν, ἐν ὅσῳ μεγέθει κατὰ TO εἰκὸς
x \ > lad > a / 7] > > 4
ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἐφεξῆς γιγνομένων συμβαίνει εἰς εὐτυχίαν
/
ἐκ δυστυχίας ἢ ἐξ εὐτυχίας eis δυστυχίαν μεταβάλλειν,
e \ a > \ n / - >] > \
ἱκανὸς ὅρος ἐστὶν τοῦ μεγέθους. μῦθος δ᾽ ἐστὶν εἷς
δ .
οὐχ ὥσπερ τινὲς οἴονται ἐὰν περὶ ἕνα ἦ᾽ πολλὰ γὰρ
fal , /
καὶ, ἄπειρα τῷ ἑνὶ συμβαίνει, ἐξ ὧν [ἐνίων] οὐδέν ἐστιν
ἕν᾽ οὕτως δὲ καὶ πράξεις ἑνὸς πολλαί εἰσιν, ἐξ ὧν
,ὔ > "4 4 an \ / “pe 4 ς
μία οὐδεμία γίνεται πρᾶξις. διὸ πάντες ἐοίκασιν ἅμαρ- 2
lal n / /
Tavew ὅσοι τῶν ποιητῶν “Hpaxdrnida Ononida καὶ τὰ
τοιαῦτα ποιήματα πεποιήκασιν" οἴονται γάρ, ἐπεὶ εἷς ἦν
ἐξ fol + e >
ὁ Ἡρακλῆς, ἕνα καὶ τὸν μῦθον εἶναι προσήκειν. ὁ δ᾽ 8
id Ψ >
Ὅμηρος ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα διαφέρει καὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἔοικεν
καλῶς ἰδεῖν ἤτοι διὰ τέχνην ἢ διὰ φύσιν" ᾿Οδύσσειαν γὰρ

n > > / [2 id » A /
ποιῶν οὐκ ἐποίησεν ἅπαντα ὅσα αὐτῷ συνέβη, οἷον πλη-

1451 a 3. σωμάτων] συστημάτων Bywater. 6. 6 add. Bursian.
8. κλεψύδραν apogr. 9. εἰώθασιν M. Schmidt: ‘sicut solemus
dicere etiam aliquo tempore et aliquando’ Arabs: φασιν codd.
17. τῷ ἑνὶ apogr.: τῶι γένει A® (cf. 1447 af 17). “᾿ ἐνίων seclus.
Spengel.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VII. 4—VIII. 3 31

1451a the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the spectator.
So it would be with a creature.a thousand miles long.
As, therefore, in animate bodies and living organisms, a 5
certain magnitude is necessary, and that such as may
be easily embraced in one view; so in the plot, a certain
length is necessary, and that length one that may be
easily embraced by the memory. The limit of length in 6
relation to dramatic competition and sensuous present-
ment, is no part of artistic theory. For suppose a
hundred tragedies had to be played against one another,
the performance would be regulated by the hour-glass,—
a method, indeed, that is familiar enough otherwise. But 7
the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself is
this :—the greater the length, the more beautiful will
the piece be in respect of such magnitude, provided that
the whole be perspicuous. And as a general rule, the
proper magnitude is comprised within such limits, that
the sequence of events, according to the law of probability -
or necessity, will admit of a change from bad fortune
to good, or from good fortune to bad.

VIII Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist
in the unity of the hero. , For infinitely various are the
incidents in one man’s life, which cannot be reduced to
unity; and so, too, there are many actions of one man
out of which we cannot make one action. Hence the 2
error, a8 it appears, of all poets who have composed a
Heracleid, a Theseid, or other poems of the kind. They
imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story of
Heracles ought also to be a unity. But Homer, as in 3
all else he is of surpassing merit, here too—whether
from art or natural genius—seems to have happily dis-

32 VIIL 3—IX. 5. 1451 a 26—1451 Ὁ 11

a a a /
γῆναι μὲν ἐν τῷ Παρνασσῷ, μανῆναι δὲ προσποιήσασθαι
> Ὁ ἦν Lal a ὑδὲ θ 7 ͵ὔ > Lal ν ἣν ἊΣ
ἐν τῷ ἀγερμῷ, ὧν οὐδὲν θατέρου γενομένου ἀναγκαῖον ἦν ἢ
\ / ὔ al “ Ζ
εἰκὸς θάτερον γενέσθαι, ἀλλὰ περὶ μίαν πρᾶξιν οἵαν λέγο-
+ ¢ / \ /
μεν τὴν Ὀδύσσειαν συνέστησεν, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὴν “Tuid-
lal a /
30 δα. χρὴ οὖν καθάπερ καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις μιμητικαῖς ἡ μία 4
,ὔ ARF 2 > Ὁ ὶ Ἃς a 6 b] \ 4 /
μίμησις ἑνός ἐστιν οὕτω Kal τὸν μῦθον, ἐπεὶ πράξεως μί-
/ > n 9 \ re Ὁ. \ \ ΄
μησίς ἐστι, μιᾶς τε εἶναι καὶ ταύτης ὅλης καὶ τὰ μέρη
- /
συνεστάναι TOV πραγμάτων οὕτως, ὥστε μετατιθεμένου
+ / a5 / / \ lal \
τινὸς μέρους ἢ ἀφαιρουμένου διαφέρεσθαι καὶ κινεῖσθαι τὸ
Σ a /
35 ὅλον᾽ ὃ yap προσὸν ἢ μὴ προσὸν μηδὲν ποιεῖ ἐπίδηλον,
2>O\ / na ef > ’,
οὐδὲν μόριον τοῦ ὅλου ἐστίν.
- Ν ,
Ix φανερὸν δὲ ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων καὶ ὅτι ov TO τὰ γενό-
/ a na . ΕῚ / > BT @ xX /
μενα λέγειν, τοῦτο ποιητοῦ ἔργον ἐστίν, ἄλλ, Ola ἂν γένουτο
\ \ \ \ \ ἝΞ A \ > a ς A
καὶ τὰ δυνατὰ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς ἢ TO ἀναγκαῖον. ὁ yap 2
e \ ‘of \ > a i / A
1451 b ἱστορικὸς καὶ ὁ ποιητὴς οὐ τῷ ἢ ἔμμετρα λέγειν ἢ ἄμετρα
7 + \ x 4; δ / ; > / an
διαφέρουσιν, εἴη yap ἂν τὰ Hpodotov εἰς μέτρα τεθῆναι,
ὶ ὑδὲ xn yf e / \ / x »+ /
καὶ οὐδὲν ἧττον ἂν εἴη ἱστορία τις μετὰ μέτρου ἢ ἄνευ μέ-
/
τρων, ἀλλὰ τούτῳ διαφέρει, τῷ τὸν μὲν TA γενόμενα λέ-
5 yeu, τὸν δὲ ola ἂν γένουτο. διὸ καὶ φιλοσοφώτερον καὶ 3
, . . , ,
σπουδαιότερον ποίησις ἱστορίας ἐστίν᾽ ἡ μὲν yap ποίησις
a / / >
μᾶλλον τὰ καθόλου, ἡ δ᾽ ἱστορία τὰ Kal ἕκαστον λέγει.
» A ’ / n , \ n ” /
ἔστιν δὲ καθόλου μέν, TO ποίῳ τὰ ποῖα ἄττα συμβαίνει 4
λέγειν ἢ πράττειν κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον, οὗ στο-
΄ e / PLT > / Ν \ p ὦ
το χάζεται ἡ ποίησις ὀνόματα ἐπιτιθεμένη, τὸ δὲ καθ᾽ Exa-
fs a
στον, τί ᾿Αλκιβιάδης ἔπραξεν ἢ τί ἔπαθεν. ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς 5

27. ἢν ἢ apogr.: ἣν AS. 28. λέγομεν apogr.: λέγοιμεν AC: ἂν
λέγοιμεν Vahlen. 82. καὶ ταύτης] ταύτης καὶ Vahlen. 94.
διαφέρεσθαι] διαφθείρεσθαι suspicatur Margoliouth, collato Arabe
‘corrumpatur.’ 35. ποιεῖ, ἐπίδηλον ὡς apogr. 87. οὐ τὸ apogr. :
οὕτω Ae, 1451 Ὁ 4. τούτῳ. .. τῷ apogr.: τοῦτο. . . τῶ A®:
τοῦτο. . . τὸ Spengel. 10. τὸ apogr.: τὸν AS.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VIII. 3—IX. 4 33

cerned the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not
bring in all the adventures of Odysseus—such as his
wound on Parnassus, or his feigned madness at the
mustering of the host—incidents between which there
was no necessary or probable connexion: but he made
the Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to centre round an
action, that in our sense of the word is one. As there- 4
fore, in the other imitative arts, the imitation is one, when
the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an imitation

of an action, must imitate one action and that a whole,
the structural union of the parts being such that, if
any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will
be disjointed and disturbed. For that which may be
present or absent without being: perceived, is not an
organic part of the whole.

IX . It is, moreover, evident from what has been said, that
it is not the function of the poet to relate what has
happened, but what may happen,— what is possible
according to the law of probability or necessity. The 2

1451p poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or
in prose. The work of Herodotus might be put into
verse, and it would still be a species of history, with
metre no less than without it. The true difference is
that one relates what has happened, the other what may
happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and 3
a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express
the universal, history the particular. The universal tells 4
us how a person of given character will on occasion speak
or act, according to the law of probability or necessity ;
and it is this universality at which Poetry aims in giving

expressive names to the characters. The particular is
D

34 IX. 5—10. 1451 b 12—37

, ” n δ ͵ ξ ὕ \ \
κωμῳδίας ἤδη τοῦτο δῆλον γέγονεν᾽ συστήσαντες γὰρ TOV
Le] \ n > / “ \ / > Ve e
μῦθον Sia τῶν εἰκότων οὕτω τὰ τυχόντα ὀνόματα ὕὑποτι-
/ \ > “ ΟῚ \ \ \ θ᾽ “
θέασιν, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ οἱ ἰαμβοποιοὶ περὶ τὸν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον
rn n lal / > /

15 ποιοῦσιν. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς τραγῳδίας τῶν γενομένων ὀνομάτων 6
> ,ὔ “ δ ra 6 , > \ ὃ / \ A
ἀντέχονται. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι πιθανόν ἐστι τὸ δυνατόν. τὰ μὲν

3 A / + ’ 3 ὃ 4 \ δὲ
οὖν μὴ γενόμενα οὔπω πιστεύομεν εἶναι δυνατά, τὰ δὲ γε-
/ Ν cA ὃ 7] » \ x > / 5 4 > 4
νόμενα φανερὸν ὅτι δυνατά, od yap ἂν ἐγένετο, εἰ ἣν ἀδύ-
> \ > A \ > al δί PF Ν A
VaTa. οὗ μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ EV ταῖς TpaywoLals ἐνίαις μὲν ἕν 7

20 ἢ δύο τῶν γνωρίμων ἐστὶν ὀνομάτων, τὰ δὲ ἄλλα πεποιη-
μένα, ἐν ἐνίαις δὲ οὐδ᾽ ἕν, οἷον ἐν τῷ ᾿Αγάθωνος ἄνθει"
« ͵7
ὁμοίως γὰρ ἐν τούτῳ τά τε πράγματα καὶ τὰ ὀνόματα πε-

, \ ὑδὲ > / ς ἣν ᾽ > / 2
ποίηται, καὶ οὐδὲν ἧττον εὐφραίνει" ὥστ᾽ οὐ πάντως εἶναι 8
7 nr ὃ δι / 50 \ A e δί
ζητητέον τῶν παραδεδομένων μύθων, περὶ οὺς αἱ τραγῳδίαι
᾽ 7] > / θ \ Ν r Lal [οἷ a > \ \
25 εἰσίν, ἀντέχεσθαι. καὶ yap γέλοϊον τοῦτο ζητεῖν, ἐπεὶ καὶ
/ ,
τὰ γνώριμα ὀλίγοις γνώριμά ἐστιν GAN ὅμως εὐφραίνει πάν-
δῆ S > 4 <4 A \ n al
τας. OndOV οὖν EK τούτων OTL τὸν ποιητὴν μᾶλλον τῶν 9
50 3 ὃ “-“ \ Xx nr / “ \ \
μύθων εἶναι δεῖ ποιητὴν ἢ τῶν μέτρων, ὅσῳ ποιητὴς κατὰ
\ / / > lal \ Ν 4 x Μ Ὁ
τὴν μίμησίν ἐστιν, μιμεῖται δὲ τὰς πράξεις. κἂν ἄρα συμβῇ
͵ὔ -“" nr
30 γενόμενα ποιεῖν, οὐθὲν ἧττον ποιητής ἐστι TOV γὰρ γενο-
/ yy ὑδὲ / “ ας Ὁ i x - ak, ᾿ /
μένων ἔνια οὐδὲν κωλύει τοιαῦτα εἶναι οἷα ἂν εἰκὸς γενέσθαι
\ ὃ \ / 0 θ᾽ Δ» a > rn / >
καὶ δυνατὰ γενέσθαι, καθ᾽ ὃ ἐκεῖνος αὐτῶν ποιητής ἐστιν...
-“ ” /
τῶν δὲ ἄλλων μύθων καὶ πράξεων ai ἐπεισοδιώδεις 10
ἢ / nr
εἰσὶν χείρισται. λέγω δ᾽ ἐπεισοδιώδη μῦθον ἐν ᾧ τὰ ἐπεισ-
ἠδ > M«M fd + Fk eet > / = lal

35 OOLA μετ΄ ἄλληλα οὔτ᾽ εἰκὸς οὔτ ἀνάγκη εἶναι. τοιαῦται
\ an ς \ \ n A lal > > ΄
δὲ ποιοῦνται ὑπὸ μὲν τῶν φαύλων ποιητῶν δι᾽ αὐτούς,
c \ δὲ a > θῶ ὃ \ \ e LF > / A
ὑπὸ δὲ τῶν ἀγαθῶν διὰ τοὺς ὑποκριτάς" ἀγωνίσματα yap

18. οὕτω] ‘nequaquam’ Arabs: fort. legendum οὐ: cf. 1451 a 37.

ἐπιτιθέασι apogr., Bekker. 14. τὸν A°; τῶν apogr. 19.
"ἐν ἐνίαις apogr., Susemihl, 23. [elvac]? Spengel. 32. καὶ -οὐκ
ἄλλως :- δυνατὰ Susemihl: καὶ δυνατὰ γενέσθαι seclus. Christ. 98.

ἄλλων Tyrwhitt: ἁπλῶν codd. 37. ὑποκριτὰς AC: κριτὰς apogr.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IX. 5—10 35

ΕἾΩΣ example—what Alcibiades did or suffered. In ὅ
Comedy this is now apparent: for here the poet first
constructs the plot on the lines of probability, and then
assumes any names he pleases ;—unlike the lampooners
who write about a particular individual. But tragedians 6
still keep to real names, the reason being that what is
possible is credible: what has not happened we do not
at once feel sure to be possible: but what has happened
is manifestly possible; otherwise it would not have
happened. Still there are some tragedies in which one 7
or two names only are well known, the rest being
fictitious. In others, none are well known,—as in
Agathon’s Flower, where incidents and names alike are
fictitious, and yet it pleases. We must not, therefore, ὃ
at all costs keep to the received legends, which are the
usual subjects of Tragedy. Indeed, it would be absurd
to attempt it; for even familiar subjects are familiar only
to a few, and yet give pleasure to all. It clearly follows 9
that the poet or ‘maker’ should be the maker of plots
rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he
imitates, and what he imitates are actions. And if he
chances to take an historical subject, he is none the less a
poet; for there is no reason why some real events should
not have that internal probability or possibility which
entitles the author to the name of poet.

Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. 10
I call a plot ‘epeisodi¢” in which the episodes or acts suc-
ceed one another without probable or necessary sequence. —
Bad poets compose such pieces by their own fault, good
poets, to please the players; for, as they write for
competing rivals, they draw out the plot beyond its

36 IX. ro—XI. τ. 1451 Ὁ 38—1452 a 26

Ὁ / , “
ποιοῦντες καὶ παρὰ τὴν δύναμιν παρατείνοντες μῦθον ποὰλ-
\ A > \ \ >
1485 λάκις διαστρέφειν ἀναγκάζονται τὸ ἐφεξῆς. ἐπεὶ δὲ οὐ
\ nr
μόνον τελείας ἐστὶ πράξεως ἡ μίμησις ἀλλὰ καὶ φοβερῶν
lal rn /
καὶ ἐλεεινῶν, ταῦτα δὲ γίνεται [καὶ] μάλιστα ὅταν γένηται
n A \ \
mapa τὴν δόξαν, καὶ μᾶλλον -«-ὅταν-- δι᾽ ἄλληλα" τὸ γὰρ
“ nr \
5 θαυμαστὸν οὕτως ἕξει μᾶλλον ἢ εἰ ἀπὸ TOD αὐτομάτου καὶ
a rn \ 4 nr
τῆς τύχης, ἐπεὶ Kal τῶν ἀπὸ τύχης ταῦτα θαυμασιώτατα
a¢ oe 9.“ , , e ᾿ ξ
δοκεῖ ὅσα ὥσπερ ἐπίτηδες φαίνεται γεγονέναι, οἷον ὡς ὁ
> \ e » ᾽ὔ > > / Ν ΓΙ rn
ἀνδριὰς ὁ τοῦ Μίτυος ἐν "Apye: ἀπέκτεινεν τὸν αἴτιον τοῦ
A “ 7 a 2 ee ν \ \
θανάτου τῷ Μίτυι, θεωροῦντε ἐμπεσών᾽ ἔοικε yap τὰ
al A 4
10 τοιαῦτα οὐκ εἰκῇ γενέσθαι. ὥστε ἀνάγκη τοὺς τοιούτους
εἶναι καλλίους μύθους.
Χ εἰσὶ δὲ τῶν μύθων οἱ μὲν ἁπλοῖ οἱ δὲ πεπλεγμένοι,
Ν e 7 Φ / e rn 7] > ς /
καὶ yap ai πράξεις ὧν μιμήσεις οἱ μῦθοί εἰσιν ὑπάρχου-
\ “ fol a
ow εὐθὺς οὖσαι τοιαῦται. λέγω δὲ ἁπλῆν μὲν πρᾶξιν ἧς
15 γινομένης ὥσπερ ὥρισται συνεχοῦς καὶ μιᾶς ἄνευ περίπε-
, Xx > a ς 7 mr ,
τείας ἢ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ ἡ μετάβασις γίνεται, πεπλεγμένη
des \ A 3 a x , ἂν ..8 - ς
δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἧς μετὰ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ ἢ περιπετείας ἢ ἀμφοῖν ἡ
/ / > a \ a / b 7 A a
μετάβασίς ἐστιν. ταῦτα δὲ δεῖ γίνεσθαι ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς ov-
“ 4 [2 an
στάσεως τοῦ μύθου, ὥστε ἐκ τῶν προγεγενημένων συμβαίνειν
x 3 Lees x \ Ν 95% ’, a ‘ 7
20 ἢ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἢ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς γίγνεσθαι ταῦτα" διαφέρει
Ἁ \ \
yap πολὺ TO γίγνεσθαι τάδε διὰ τάδε ἢ μετὰ τάδε.
4 δὲ / \ e > \ > ὃ , -
ΧΙ ἔστι δὲ περιπέτεια μὲν ἡ εἰς τὸ ἐναντίον τῶν πρατ-
/ / an
τομένων μεταβολή, καθάπερ εἴρηται, καὶ τοῦτο δὲ ὥσπερ
, “ποτ S ANS Bg a Ser 2 a 2O/
λέγομεν κατὰ TO εἰκὸς ἢ ἀναγκαῖον᾽ ὥσπερ ἐν τῷ Oidi-
\ A \ n
25 ποδι ἐλθὼν ὡς εὐφρανῶν Tov Οἰδίπουν καὶ ἀπαλλάξων τοῦ
\ A , , ,ὔ 5
πρὸς τὴν μητέρα φόβου, δηλώσας ὃς ἦν, τοὐναντίον ἐποίησεν
38. παρατείνοντες apogr. : παρατείνάντες A°. 1452 a 3. καὶ seclus.
Susemihl. καὶ μάλιστα καὶ μᾶλλον ὅταν γένηται παρὰ τὴν δόξαν codd. :
correxit Reiz. 17. δ᾽ ἐστὶν §sSusemihl : δὲ λέξις AC: δέ ἐστιν ἐξ ἧς (h. 6.

δέ Λ΄ εξης) Vahlen: δὲ ἐξ fs vel δὲ πρᾶξις apogr. : δὲ πρᾶξις ἧς Ueberweg.
20. ταῦτα] τἀναντία Bonitz, fort. recte.

1452 a

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IX. to—XI. τ 37

capacity, and are often forced to break the natural con-
tinuity.
But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of all
complete action, but of events terrible and pitiful. Such
an effect is best produced when the events come on us
by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the
same time, they follow from one another. The tragic 12
wonder will then be greater than if they happened of
themselves or by accident; for even accidents are most
striking when they have an air of design. We may
instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his
murderer while he was looking at it, and killed him. Such
events seem not to be due to mere chance. Plots, therefore,
constructed on these principles are necessarily the best.
Plots are either Simple or Complicated ; for such too,
in their very nature, are the actions of which the plots
are an imitation. An action which is one and con- 2

tinuous in the sense above defined, I call Simple, when
the turning point is reached without Reversal of F ortune
or Recognition : Complicated, when it is reached with
Reversal of Fortune, or Recognition, or both. These 3
last should arise from the internal structure of the plot,
so that what follows should be the necessary or probable
result of the preceding action. It makes all the difference
whether one event is the consequence of another, or
merely subsequent to it.

A Reversal of Fortune is, as we have said, a change
by which a train of action produces the opposite of the
effect intended; and that, according to our rule of prob-
ability or necessity. Thus in the Oedipus, the messenger,
hoping to cheer Oedipus, and to free him from his alarms

38 ΧΙ. 1—6. 1452 a 27—1452 Ὁ 13

> fal a ¢ \ > / ς > 4 e \

καὶ ἐν τῷ Λυγκεῖ ὁ μὲν ἀγόμενος ὡς ἀποθανούμενος, ὁ δὲ

_ Δαναὸς ἀκολουθῶν ὡς ἀποκτενῶν, τὸν μὲν συνέβη ἐκ τῶν
πεπραγμένων ἀποθανεῖν, τὸν δὲ σωθῆναι. ἀναγνώρισις 2

30 δέ, ὥσπερ καὶ τοὔνομα σημαίνει, ἐξ ἀγνοίας εἰς γνῶσιν

μεταβολὴ ἢ εἰς φιλίαν ἢ εἰς ἔχθραν τῶν πρὸς εὐτυχίαν ἢ

δυστυχίαν ὡρισμένων" καλλίστη δὲ ἀναγνώρισις, ὅταν ἅμα

7 7 4 δεν nr 997 ply εἶ
περιπέτειαι γίνωνται, οἷον ἔχει ἡ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι. εἰσὶν μὲν 8
οὖν καὶ ἄλλαι ἀναγνωρίσεις" καὶ γὰρ πρὸς ἄψυχα καὶ τὰ

35 τυχόντα ἔστιν ὡς --ὅ:-περ εἴρηται συμβαίνει, καὶ εἰ πέ-

, x \ / » > 7 οΣ ἌΧ Ὁ ΄
πραγέ TLS ἢ μὴ πέπραγεν ἐστιν ἀναγνωρίσαι" αλλ ἡ μά-
Mota τοῦ μύθου καὶ ἡ μάλιστα τῆς πράξεως ἡ εἰρημένη
> eR \ 4 > , \ / Xx
ἐστίν" ἡ yap τοιαύτη ἀναγνώρισις Kal περιπέτεια ἢ ἔλεον 4

1452 b ἕξει ἢ φόβον, οἵων πράξεων ἡ τραγῳδία μίμησις ὑπόκειται"
ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὸ ἀτυχεῖν καὶ τὸ εὐτυχεῖν ἐπὶ τῶν τοιούτων

/ > \ in ees a / A > 2 ,
συμβήσεται. ἐπεὶ δὴ ἡ ἀναγνώρισις τινῶν ἐστιν ἀναγνώρισις, 5

ε XN / 5% \ “ / Ψ = rn [2
αἱ μὲν θατέρου πρὸς τὸν ἕτερον μόνον, ὅταν ἢ δῆλος ἅτερος
5 τίς ἐστιν, ὁτὲ δὲ ἀμφοτέρους δεῖ ἀναγνωρίσαι, οἷον ἡ
μὲν ᾿Ιφιγένεια τῷ ᾿Ορέστῃ ἀνεγνωρίσθη ἐκ τῆς πέμψεως
τῆς ἐπιστολῆς, ἐκείνου δὲ πρὸς τὴν ᾿Ιφιγένειαν ἄλλης ἔδει
ἀναγνωρίσεως. ,
δύο μὲν οὖν τοῦ μύθου μέρη περὶ ταῦτ᾽ ἐστί, περιπέτεια 6
το καὶ ἀναγνώρισις, τρίτον δὲ πάθος. τούτων δὲ περιπέτεια μὲν
καὶ ἀναγνώρισις εἴρηται, πάθος δέ ἐστι πρᾶξις φθαρτικὴ ἢ
> 4 “ > “ lal / \ «ς
ὀδυνηρά, οἷον οἵ τε ἐν τῷ φανερῷ θάνατοι καὶ αἱ περιω-
δυνίαι καὶ τρώσεις καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα.
33. Fort. οἵαν Bywater. 35. ἔστιν ὡς -«-ὅ:- περ Spengel : ἐστὶν ὥσπερ A°:
ἔστιν ὅτε ὥσπερ Ald., Bekker. cuuBalvewapogr. 86. #uhapogr.: εἰ μὴ AS.
38. καὶ περιπέτεια seclus. Susemihl. καὶ -«- μάλιστ᾽ ἐὰν καὶ:- περιπέτεια ἢ
ἔλεον coni. Vahlen. 1452 Ὁ 1. σΐων apogr.: οἷον AS. 42. ἔτι δὲ] ἐπειδὴ
Susemihl, pos. commate post ὑπόκειται. 3. ἐπεὶ δὴ ἡ] ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἡ Bekker.
4, ἅτερος Bernays: ἕτερος codd. 7. ἐκείνου Bywater: ἐκείνῳ codd.

9. περὶ seclus. Maggi: περὶ non videtur legisse Arabs (Margoliouth) :.
περὶ ταὐτὰ Twining. 12. οἵ re apogr.: ὅτε AS.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XI. 1—6 39

about his mother, reveals his origin, and so produces the
opposite effect. Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being
led out to die, and Danaus goes with him, meaning to
slay him; but the outcome of the action is, that Danaus
is killed and Lynceus saved.

A Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change 2
from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate
between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad
fortune. The best form of recognition is coincident with
a reversal of fortune, as in the Oedipus. There are 3
indeed other forms. Even inanimate things of the most
trivial kind may sometimes be objects of recognition.
Again, the discovery may be made whether a person has
or has not done something. But the form which is
most intimately connected with the plot and action is, as
we have said, the recognition of persons. This, combined 4
with a reversal of fortune, will produce either pity or

1452 fear; and actions producing these effects are those which,
as we have assumed, Tragedy represents. Moreover,
fortune or misfortune will depend upon such incidents.
Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen 5
that one person only is recognised by the other—when
the latter is already known—or the recognition may need
to be on both sides. Thus Iphigenia is revealed to
Orestes by the sending of the letter; but another means
is required to make Orestes known to Iphigenia.

Two parts, then, of the Plot—Reversal of Fortune and 6
Recognition—turn upon surprises. A third part is the ;
Tragic Incident. The two former have been discussed.
The Tragic Incident is a destructive or painful action, such
as death on the stage, bodily torments, wounds and the like.

40 XII. 1—XIIL 2. 1452 Ὁ 14—35

XII [μέρη δὲ τραγῳδίας οἷς μὲν ὡς εἴδεσι δεῖ χρῆσθαι
15 πρότερον εἴπομεν, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ποσὸν καὶ εἰς ἃ διαιρεῖται
κεχωρισμένα τάδε ἐστίν, πρόλογος ἐπεισόδιον ἔξοδος χο-
ρικόν, καὶ τούτου τὸ μὲν πάροδος τὸ δὲ στάσιμον" κοινὰ μὲν
id / lal ΕΣ \ \ > \ an rn \ /
ἁπάντων ταῦτα, ἴδια δὲ τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς σκηνῆς καὶ κόμμοι.
ἔστιν δὲ πρόλογος μὲν μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ πρὸ χοροῦ 3
20 παρόδου, ἐπεισόδιον δὲ μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ μεταξὺ
ὅλων χορικῶν μελῶν, ἔξοδος δὲ μέρος ὅλον τρωγῳδίας
μεθ᾽ ὃ οὐκ ἔστι χοροῦ μέλος, χορικοῦ δὲ πάροδος μὲν ἡ
πρώτη λέξις ὅλη χοροῦ, στάσιμον δὲ μέλος χοροῦ τὸ ἄνευ
ἀναπαίστου καὶ τροχαίου, κόμμος δὲ θρῆνος κοινὸς χοροῦ καὶ
a > \ fol / \ / 2 \ e »
25 -τῶν-:- ἀπὸ σκηνῆς. μέρη δὲ τραγῳδίας οἷς μὲν ὡς εἴδεσι 3
δεῖ χρῆσθαι πρότερον εἴπαμεν, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ποσὸν καὶ εἰς

ἃ a 7 δὰ. ἃ /
a διαιρεῖται κεχωρίσμενα ταῦτ éotiv=|

ΧΠῚ ὧν δὲ δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι καὶ ἃ δεῖ εὐλαβεῖσθαι συν-
/ \ 4 \ / ΝΜ Ν “ / »
στάντας τοὺς μύθους Kal πόθεν ἔσται TO THs τραγῳδίας ἔρ-
30 γον, ἐφεξῆς ἂν εἴη λεκτέον τοῖς νῦν εἰρημένοις. ἐπειδὴ οὖν 2
δεῖ τὴν σύνθεσιν εἶναι τῆς καλλίστης Tpayedias μὴ ἁπλῆν
ἀλλὰ πεπλεγμένην καὶ ταύτην φοβερῶν καὶ ἐλεεινῶν εἶναι
μιμητικήν, τοῦτο γὰρ ἴδιον τῆς τοιαύτης μιμήσεως ἐστίν,
a \ n ee " \ 3 a. ΙΝ a
πρῶτον μὲν δῆλον ὅτι οὔτε τοὺς ἐπιεικεῖς ἄνδρας δεῖ μετα-
35 βάλλοντας φαίνεσθαι ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν, οὐ γὰρ
14, Totum hoc cap. seclus. Ritter, recte, ut opinor. 23. ὅλη Westphal :
ὅλου AS. 25. τῶν add. Christ praeeunte Ritter. οἷς μὲν ws εἴδεσι

det apogr.: οἷς μὲν δεῖ AS. 28. ὧν apogr. : ws ΑΞ“, 32. πεπλεγ- ᾿
μένην seclus. Susemihl.

«.

SS “πῆρα σεν

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XII. 1—XIII. 2 41

XII [The parts of Tragedy, which must be treated as
elements of the whole, have been already mentioned.
We now come to the quantitative parts—the separate
parts into which Tragedy is divided—namely, Prologos,
Episode, Exodos, Choral element ; this last being divided
into Parodos and Stasimon. These two are sung by the
whole Chorus. The songs of the actors on the stage,
and the Commoi, are sung by individuals.

The Prologos is that entire part of a tragedy which 2
precedes the Parodos of the Chorus. The Episode is that
entire part of a tragedy which is between whole choral
songs. The Exodos is that entire part of a tragedy
which has no choral song after it. Of the Choral part
the Parodos is the first undivided utterance of the
Chorus: the Stasimon is a choral ode without anapaests
or, trochees: the Commos is a joint lamentation of
chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which must be 3
treated as elements of the whole have been already
mentioned. The quantitative parts—the separate parts
into which it is divided—are here enumerated. |
XIII = As the sequel to what has already been said, we
must proceed to consider what the poet should aim at,
and what he should avoid, in constructing his plots; and
by what means Tragedy may best fulfil its function.

A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged 2
on the simple, not the complicated,plan. It should, more-
over, imitate actions which excite pity and fear, this being
the distinctive mark of tragic imitation. It follows
plainly, in the first place, that the change of fortune pre-—
sented must not be the spectacle of a perfectly good man
brought from prosperity to adversity: for this moves

42 XT. 2—6. 1452 Ὁ 36—1453 a 23

a / A \
φοβερὸν οὐδὲ ἐλεεινὸν τοῦτο ἀλλὰ μιαρόν ἐστιν" οὔτε TOUS
/ \
μοχθηροὺς ἐξ ἀτυχίας εἰς εὐτυχίαν, ἀτραγῳδότατον yap
τοῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ πάντων" οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔχει ὧν δεῖ, οὔτε γὰρ φιλάν-
/ /
1453 θρωπον οὔτε ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε φοβερόν éotiv* οὐδ᾽ ad τὸν σφόδρα
\ > > / > / / ἘΞ \ \ \
πονηρὸν ἐξ εὐτυχίας eis δυστυχίαν μεταπίπτειν" TO μὲν γὰρ
φιλάνθρωπον ἔχοι ἂν ἡ τοιαύτη σύστασις ἀλλ᾽ οὔτε ἔλεον
» / ς τς \ \ Ν > / , > na
οὔτε φόβον, ὁ μὲν yap περὶ Tov ἀνάξιόν ἐστιν δυστυχοῦντα,
/
5 ὁ δὲ περὶ τὸν ὅμοιον, ἔλεος μὲν περὶ τὸν ἀνάξιον, φόβος δὲ
Ν “ [4 BA \ » \ δ Ν
περὶ τὸν ὅμοιον, ὥστε οὔτε ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε φοβερὸν ἔσται τὸ
a / a
συμβαῖνον. ὁ μεταξὺ dpa τούτων λοιπός. ἔστι δὲ τοιοῦτος 3
ε / > “Ὁ 7 \ 4 / \ /
ὁ μήτε ἀρετῇ διαφέρων καὶ δικαιοσύνῃ, μήτε διὰ κακίαν
καὶ μοχθηρίαν μεταβάλλων εἰς τὴν δυστυχίαν ἀλλὰ OV
e / / rn > 4 / ” \ > /
το ἁμαρτίαν τινά, Tov ἐν μεγάλῃ δόξῃ ὄντων Kal εὐτυχίᾳ,
50." \ 7 \ e 5 fal 4 fal
οἷον Οἰδίπους καὶ Θυέστης καὶ οἱ ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων γενῶν
> a ba > / Ψ \ a » “
ἐπιφανεῖς ἄνδρες. ἀνάγκη ἄρα τὸν καλῶς ἔχοντα μῦθον 4
ἁπλοῦν εἶναι μᾶλλον ἢ διπλοῦν, ὥσπερ τινές φασι, καὶ με-
ταβάλλειν οὐκ εἰς εὐτυχίαν ἐκ δυστυχίας ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον
15 ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν, μὴ διὰ μοχθηρίαν ἀλλὰ δι᾿
ἁμαρτίαν μεγάλην ἢ οἵου εἴρηται ἢ βελτίονος μᾶλλον ἢ
/ lal lal
χείρονος. σημεῖον δὲ καὶ τὸ γιγνόμενον" πρῶτον μὲν yap 5
ε \ \ / 4 > / a \ \
οἱ ποιηταὶ τοὺς τυχόντας μύθους ἀπηρίθμουν, νῦν δὲ περὶ
ὀλίγας οἰκίας αἱ [κάλλισται] τραγῳδίαι συντίθενται, οἷον
20 περὶ ᾿Αλκμαίωνα καὶ Οἰδίπουν καὶ ᾿Ορέστην καὶ Μελέα-
γρον καὶ Θυέστην καὶ Τήλεφον καὶ ὅσοις ἄλλοις συμβέβηκεν
Ε θ - ὃ 1 a A e A 5 \ \ /
ἢ παθεῖν δεινὰ ἢ ποιῆσαι. ἡ μὲν οὖν κατὰ THY τέχνην
7 / > MB A / > ’ὔ \ \
καλλίστη τραγῳδία ἐκ ταὐτὴς Ths συστάσεως ἐστί. διὸ καὶ 6
1453 8. 1. αὖ τὸν apogr.: αὖ τὸ AS. 5. ἔλεος μὲν. .. τὸν ὅμοιον seclus.

Ritter, quod non confirm. Arabs (Margoliouth). 19. κάλλισται seclus. °
Christ: Arabs non vertit (Margoliouth).

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIII. 2—6 43

neither pity nor fear; it simply shocks us. Nor, again,
that of a bad man passing from adversity to prosperity :
for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy ; it
possesses no single tragic quality; it neither satisfies
the moral sense, nor calls forth pity or fear. Nor, ἐν
1468 again, should the downfall of the utter villain be (
exhibited. A plot of this kind would, doubtless, satisfy ,
the moral sense, but it would inspire neither pity nor |
fear; for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear /
by the misfortune of a man like ourselves. Such an /
event, therefore, will be neither pitiful nor terrible. \
There remains, then, the character between these two3 |
extremes,—that of a man who is not eminently good and
just, yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice
or depravity, but by some’error or frailty. He must be one
who is highly renowned and prosperous,—a personage like
Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such families.
A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single, 4
rather than double as some maintain. The change—of
fortune should_be|not from bad to good, but, reversely,
from good to bad. It should come about as the result :
not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a character_ a> *
either_such as we—haye described, or better rather than
worse. The practice of the stage bears out our view. At 5
first the poets recounted any legends-that came in their way.
Now, tragedies are founded on the story of a few houses,
—on the fortunes of Alcmaeon, Oedipus, Orestes, Mele-
ager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those others who have done
or suffered something terrible. A tragedy, then, to
be perfect according to the rules of art should be of
this construction. Hence they are in error who censure 6

44 XIII. 6—XIV. 2. 1453 a 24—1453 Ὁ 10

i Ἐ (ὃ 3» a ἀντ δὺς. DN, oe , “ a
οἱ Evpurridn ἐγκαλοῦντες τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ ἁμαρτάνουσιν, OTL τοῦτο
- a /
25 δρᾷ ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις καὶ πολλαὶ αὐτοῦ eis δυστυχίαν
lal rn / lal
τελευτῶσιν. τοῦτο yap ἐστιν ὥσπερ εἴρηται ὀρθόν. σημεῖον
δὲ μέγιστον" ἐπὶ γὰρ τῶν σκηνῶν καὶ τῶν ἀγώνων τραγι-
, ε r 4 na a + Js
κώταται αἱ τοιαῦται φαίνονται, dv κατορθωθῶσιν, Kal ὁ
Εὐριπίδης εἰ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα μὴ εὖ οἰκονομεῖ ἀλλὰ τρα-
, / a lal / / oe ,
30 γικώτατός γε τῶν ποιητῶν φαίνεται. δευτέρα δ᾽ ἡ πρώτη 7
/ ig \ na ΕῚ ᾿ ς a \ 4
λεγομένη ὑπὸ τινῶν ἐστιν [σύστασις] ἡ διπλῆν τε THY σύστα-
σιν ἔχουσα, καθάπερ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια, καὶ τελευτῶσα ἐξ ἐναν-
vad a Φ \
τίας τοῖς βελτίοσι καὶ χείροσιν. δοκεῖ δὲ εἶναι πρώτη διὰ
\ lal ¥. 5 / ὃ A “ nS ε \
τὴν τῶν θεάτρων ἀσθένειαν" ἀκολουθοῦσι yap οἱ ποιηταὶ
> > \ a a - ” \ > “ ς
35 κατ᾽ εὐχὴν ποιοῦντες τοῖς θεαταῖς. ἔστιν δὲ οὐχ αὕτη <> 8
Ἁ an /
ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας ἡδονὴ ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον τῆς κωμῳδίας οἰκεία"
> tal \ A xX Μ > > al / > /
ἐκεῖ γὰρ οἱ ἂν ἔχθιστοι ὦσιν ἐν τῷ μύθῳ, οἷον ᾿Ορέστης
\ ’ a /
καὶ Αἴγισθος, φίλοι γενόμενοι ἐπὶ τελευτῆς ἐξέρχονται
% 552 [4 > \ ς > 3 /
καὶ ἀποθνήσκει οὐδεὶς ὑπ᾽ οὐδενός.
XIV ἔστιν μὲν οὖν τὸ φοβερὸν καὶ ἐλεεινὸν ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως
7 5, Ν See 4 ϑε - a / lal
1453 b γίγνεσθαι, ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγ-
/ a
μάτων, ὅπερ ἐστὶ πρότερον καὶ ποιητοῦ ἀμείνονος. δεῖ yap
\ oF A, ΠΣ οὖ, Ὁ ) APA \ rn Ψ \
καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ ὁρᾶν οὕτω συνεστάναι τὸν μῦθον, ὥστε τὸν
» uA Ν / / \ / \ n~
5 ἀκούοντα τὰ πράγματα γινόμενα Kal φρίττειν Kal. ἐλεεῖν
> an / > & x 7 > ΄ \ a
ἐκ TOV συμβαινόντων" ἅπερ ἂν πάθοι τις ἀκούων τὸν τοῦ
/ a fol n
Οἰδίπου μῦθον. τὸ δὲ διὰ τῆς ὄψεως τοῦτο παρασκευά- 2
> ͵ \ , , ΜΓ ee ep
ew ἀτεχνότερον καὶ χορηγίας δεόμενόν ἐστιν. οἱ δὲ μὴ TO
\ a an ,
φοβερὸν διὰ τῆς ὄψεως ἀλλὰ τὸ τερατῶδες μόνον παρα-
7, 29\ yes a tes \ 5
10 σκευάζοντες οὐδὲν Tpaywdia κοινωνοῦσιν" οὐ yap πᾶσαν

24. τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ Thurot: αὐτοὶ Reiz: τὸ αὐτὸ codd. Vahlen: ‘secludendum
coni. Margoliouth collato Arabe. 25. <ai> πολλαὶ Knebel. 31.
σύστασις seclus. Twining. 84, θεάτρων A°: θεατῶν apogr. 35.
αὕτη <> coni. Vahlen. 37. of ἂν Bonitz: ἂν οἱ codd.: κἂν οἱ Spengel.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIII. 6—XIV. 2 45

Euripides just because he follows this principle in his
plays, many of which end unhappily. It is, as we
have said, the right ending. The best proof is that
on the stage and in dramatic competition, such plays,
if they are well represented, are most tragic in their effect ;
and Euripides, faulty as he is in the general management
of his subject, yet is felt to be the most tragic of poets.
In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which 7
some place first. Like the Odyssey, it has a double thread
of plot, and also an opposite catastrophe for the good
and for the bad. It is generally thought to be the
best owing to the weakness of the spectators; for the
poet is guided in what he writes by the wishes of his
audience. The pleasure, however, thence derived is not 8
the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather to Comedy,
where those who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies
—like Orestes and Aegisthus—go forth reconciled at
last, and no one slays or is slain.
xIV Fear and pity may be aroused by the spectacle or
1458? scenic presentment; but they may also result from the
inner structure of the piece, which is the better way,
_ and indicates a superior poet. For the plot ought to be
so constructed that, even without the aid of the eye, any
one who is told the incidents will thrill with horror
and_pity at the turn of events. This is precisely the
impression we should receive from listening to the story
of the Oedipus. But to produce this effect by the mere 2
spectacle is a less artistic method, and dependent on
extraneous aids. Those who employ spectacular means to
create a sense not of the terrible but of the monstrous,
are strangers to the purpose of Tragedy; for we must

46 XIV. 3—6. 1453 b 11—32

An a ς \ BJ \ / 3 \ \ > / bp] \
δεῖ ζητεῖν ἡδονὴν ἀπὸ τραγῳδίας ἀλλὰ τὴν οἰκείαν. ἐπεὶ δὲ 3
/ tal \
τὴν ἀπὸ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου διὰ μιμήσεως δεῖ ἡδονὴν παρα-
σκευάζειν τὸν ποιητήν, φανερὸν ὡς τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς πράγμα-
> / tal 5 \ Xx Lal > \ /
ow ἐμποιητέον. ποῖα οὖν δεινὰ ἢ ποῖα οἰκτρὰ φαίνεται
τῶν συμπιπτόντων, λάβωμεν. ἀνάγκη δὴ ἢ φίλων εἶναι
πρὸς ἀλλήλους τὰς τοιαύτας πράξεις ἢ ἐχθρῶν ἢ μηδε-
Ν /
τέρων. ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐχθρὸς ἐχθρόν, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν οὔτε
ποιῶν οὔτε μέλλων, πλὴν κατ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ πάθος" οὐδ᾽ ἂν
7 " ΤῊΝ Pes a , > ͵ \
μηδετέρως ἔχοντες" ὅταν δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς φιλίαις ἐγγένηται τὰ
πάθη, οἷον εἰ ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν ἢ υἱὸς πατέρα ἢ μήτηρ
υἱὸν ἢ υἱὸς μητέρα ἀποκτείνει ἢ μέλλει ἤ TL ἄλλο τοιοῦτον
a a \
δρᾷ, ταῦτα ζητητέον. τοὺς μὲν οὖν παρειλημμένους μύθους 5
λύειν οὐκ ἔστιν, λέγω δὲ οἷον τὴν Κλυταιμνήστραν ἀποθα-
νοῦσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀρέστου καὶ τὴν Ἐιξριφύλην ὑπὸ τοῦ Αλκμαί-
pi. \ ee A - \ a / a
wvos, αὐτὸν δὲ εὑρίσκειν δεῖ καὶ τοῖς παραδεδομένοις χρῆ-
σθαι καλῶς. τὸ δὲ καλῶς τί λέγομεν, εἴπωμεν σαφέστερον.
»" \ \ ¢ , \ a “ ε \
ἔστι μὲν yap οὕτω γίνεσθαι THY πρᾶξιν, ὥσπερ οἱ παλαιοὶ
5 ;ὔ 50. 7 \ 4, / +. > 7]
ἐποίουν εἰδότας καὶ γυγνώσκοντας, καθάπερ καὶ Evpurridns
> / > / \ an \ / ca
ἐποίησεν ἀποκτείνουσαν τοὺς παῖδας τὴν Μήδειαν. ἔστιν δὲ
na / > a \ a \ / 352) oo
πρᾶξαι μέν, ἀγνοοῦντας δὲ πρᾶξαι τὸ δεινόν, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον
ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν φιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίπους"

na \ 5 » n / > > > A a ,
τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἐν δ᾽ αὐτῇ. τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ

1453 Ὁ 15. δὴ Spengel: δὲ codd. 17. ἐχθρόν] ἐχθρὸν ἀποκτείνῃ Bekk.
praeeunte Pazzi. ἐλεεινὸν} -- φοβερὸν οὐδ᾽ Ξ- ἐλεεινὸν Ueberweg. 20. εἰ
ἀδελφὸς Sylburg: ἢ ἀδελφὸς codd. 22. δρᾷ ΔΡορτ. : δρᾶν Α5, 26.

εἴπωμεν apogr.: εἴπομεν AS.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 2—6 47

not demand of Tragedy every kind of pleasure, but only
that which is proper to it. And since the pleasure 3
which the poet should afford is that which comes from
pity and fear through imitation, it is evident that this
quality must be stamped upon the incidents.

~ Let us then determine what are the circumstances
which impress us as terrible or pitiful.

Actions capable of this effect must happen between 4
persons who are either friends or enemies or indifferent to
one another. If an enemy kills an enemy, there is nothing _
to excite pity either j in the act or the intention, —exeept- =
so far as the suffering i in ‘itself i is pitiful, So again with
indifferent persons. But when the tragic incident occurs
between those who are near or dear to one another—
if, for example, a brother kills, or intends to kill, a
brother, a son his father, a mother her son, a son his
mother, or any other deed of the kind is done—here we
have the situations which should be sought for by the poet.
He may not indeed destroy the framework of the received 5
legends—the fact, for instance, that Clytemnestra was slain
by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alemaeon—but he ought to
show invention of his own, and skilfully adapt the tradi-
tional material. What is meant by skilfully, let us
explain more clearly.

The action may be done willingly and with full 6
knowledge on the part of the agents, in the manner of
the older poets. It is thus, in fact, that Euripides
makes Medea slay her children. Or, again, the deed of
horror may be done, but. done in ignorance, and the tie
of kinship or friendship be discovered afterwards: The
Oedipus of Sophocles.is an example. Here, indeed,

48 XIV. 6—9. 1453 Ὁ 33—1454 a 13

c.> / C7 ͵7ὔ aA ¢ / Ae! a
οἷον ὁ ᾿Αλκμαίων ὁ ᾿Αστυδάμαντος ἢ ὁ Τηλέγονος ὁ ἐν τῷ
’ὔ 5 al » Ν / \ n \ I
τραυματίᾳ ᾿Οδυσσεῖ. ἔτι δὲ τρίτον παρὰ ταῦτα τὸ μέλλον-
a lol /

35 TA ποιεῖν TL τῶν ἀνηκέστων δι᾽ ἄγνοιαν ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν
ποιῆσαι. καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλως. ἢ γὰρ πρᾶξαι
> [4 a \ Ἄς 0.7 xX \ Panwa / A Ν \
ἀνάγκη ἢ μὴ καὶ εἰδότας ἢ μὴ εἰδότας. τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν

, a \ \ a ,ὔ = / \
γινώσκοντα μελλῆσαι Kal μὴ πρᾶξαι χείριστον" TO τε yap
\ » \ > / > \ / / ᾽ \
μιαρὸν ἔχει, Kal οὐ τραγικὸν" ἀπαθὲς γάρ. διόπερ οὐδεὶς
ae 2 3 a eg. ΄ > > / \ /
1454 a ποιεῖ ὁμοίως, εἰ μὴ ὀλιγάκις, οἷον ἐν ᾿Αντυγόνῃ τὸν Κρέοντα
ς a
ὁ Αἵμων. τὸ δὲ πρᾶξαι δεύτερον. βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα
\ n / {- 2 z / , Ν Ν
μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι" τό τε γὰρ μιαρὸν
/ , , P
ov πρόσεστιν Kal ἡ ἀναγνώρισις ἐκπληκτικόν. κράτιστον δὲ
\ a / \ Ka > ad , ς /
5 τὸ τελευταῖον, λέγω δὲ οἷον ἐν τῷ Κρεσφόντῃ ἡ Μερόπη
\
μέλλει τὸν υἱὸν ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτείνει δὲ οὔ, GAN ἀνε-
>
γνώρισεν, καὶ ἐν τῇ ᾿Ιφιγενείᾳ ἡ ἀδελφὴ τὸν ἀδελφόν, καὶ
ad ε Ν \ / /
ἐν τῇ Ἑλλῃ ὁ υἱὸς THY μητέρα ἐκδιδόναι μέλλων ἀνεγνώ-
ρίσεν. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο, ὅπερ πάλαι εἴρηται, οὐ περὶ πολλὰ
/ e / πο Ψ a \ > > \ /

10 γένη αἱ τραγῳδίαι εἰσίν. ζητοῦντες yap οὐκ ἀπὸ τέχνης
> δια ΟΝ ΄ 2 Ν a A > a
ἀλλ᾽ ἀπὸ τύχης εὗρον TO τοιοῦτον παρασκευάζειν ἐν τοῖς

4 > / 5 ΟΣ, 4 \ Ee > lal
μύθοις. ἀναγκάζονται οὖν ἐπὶ ταύτας Tas οἰκίας ἀπαντᾶν

ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.

33. ὁ ᾿Αλκμαίων ὁ Gryphius: ὁ ᾿Αλκμαίωνος A. 84. τὸ Bonitz: τὸν Αὔ,
1454 a 8. Ἕλλῃ] ᾿Αντιόπῃ Valckenaer.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 6—9 49

the incident is outside the drama proper; but cases
occur where it falls within the action of the play: we
may cite the Alemaeon of Astydamas, or Telegonus in the
Wounded Odysseus. Again, there is a third case, where 7
some one is just about to do some irreparable deed
through ignorance, and makes the discovery before it is
done. These are the only possible ways. For the deed
must either be done or not done,—and that wittingly or
unwittingly. But of all these ways, to be about to act
knowing the consequences, and then not to act, is the
worst. It is shocking without being tragic, for no
disaster follows. It is, therefore, never, or very rarely,
found in poetry. One-instance, however, is in the
Antigone, where Haemon intends to kill Creon. The 8
next and better way is that the deed should be
perpetrated. Still better, that it should be perpetrated
in ignorance, and the discovery made afterwards. There
is then nothing to shock us, while the discovery pro-
duces a startling effect. But the absolutely best way is 9
the last mentioned. Thus in the Cresphontes, Merope is
in the act of putting her son to death, but, recognising
who he is, spares his lifes So in the Iphigenia, the
sister recognises the brother just in time. Again in the
Helle, the son recognises the mother when on the point
of giving her up. This, then, is why a few families
only, as has been already observed, furnish the subjects
of tragedy. It was not art, but happy chance, that
led poets by tentative discovery to impress the tragic
quality upon their plots. They are compelled, therefore, —
to have recourse to those houses in which tragic
disasters have occurred.

50 XIV. 9—XV. 6. 1454 a 14—36

n a /
περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσεως Kal ποί-
15 ous τινὰς εἶναι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους εἴρηται ἱκανῶς.
tal a
XV περὶ δὲ τὰ ἤθη τέτταρά ἐστιν ὧν δεῖ στοχάζεσθαι, ἕν
- 3
μὲν καὶ πρῶτον ὅπως χρηστὰ ἧ. ἕξει δὲ ἦθος μὲν ἐὰν
Φ ΄ “ Ν ε / ΕΓ. - ,
ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη ποιῇ φανερὸν ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαί-
/ 3 \ δὲ 2\ / 4 δὲ 5
ρεσίν. τινα [ἢ], χρηστὸν δὲ ἐὰν χρηστήν. ἔστιν δὲ ἐν
- 7ὔ Le
20 ἑκάστῳ yéver’ Kal yap γυνή ἐστιν χρηστὴ καὶ δοῦλος,
,ὔ »” 4 Ν Ν - \ Ae n
καίτοι ye ἴσως τούτων TO μὲν χεῖρον, TO δὲ ὅλως φαῦ-
, , , i ms
Nov ἐστιν. δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα᾽ ἔστιν yap ἀνδρεῖον 2
/ 5 > > > ς / \ Ὁ > /
μέν τι ἦθος, GAN οὐχ ἁρμόττον γυναικὶ οὕτως ἀνδρείαν
Xx \ 5 4 \ Sy ee fal \ “ “
ἢ δεινὴν εἶναι. τρίτον δὲ τὸ ὅμοιον. τοῦτο γὰρ ἕτερον τοῦ 3
/ nr
25 χρηστὸν τὸ ἦθος Kal ἁρμόττον ποιῆσαι ὥσπερ εἴρηται.
/ \ » ε / x \ > 4 / 5 \
τέταρτον δὲ τὸ ὁμαλόν. κἂν yap ἀνώμαλός τις ἢ ὁ τὴν 4
μίμησιν παρέχων καὶ τοιοῦτον ἦθος ὑποτιθείς, ὅμως ὁμα-
An “ ἡ
λῶς ἀνώμαλον δεῖ εἶναι. ἔστιν δὲ παράδευγμα πονηρίας μὲν ὅ
, e , e fel n
ἤθους μὴ ἀναγκαίου οἷον ὁ Μενέλαος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ὀρέστῃ, τοῦ
n \ , a
30 δὲ ἀπρεποῦς Kal μὴ ἁρμόττοντος 6 τε θρῆνος Ὀδυσσέως ἐν
n / <) ἢ n / ten AG -“ » Ae v2
τῇ Σκύλλῃ Kal ἡ THs Μελανίππης ῥῆσις, τοῦ δὲ ἀνωμάλου
, 5 \
ἡ ἐν Αὐλίδι Ἰφιγένεια" οὐδὲν yap ἔοικεν ἡ ἱκετεύουσα TH
ς / \ δὲ \ > a HO Ὁ iw J ‘al lal 6
ὑστέρᾳ. χρὴ δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν ὥσπερ Kal ἐν τῇ τῶν
- Ν a
πραγμάτων συστάσει ἀεὶ ζητεῖν ἢ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὸ εἰκός,
fal a / x a
35 ὥστε τὸν τοιοῦτον τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν ἢ πράττειν ἢ ἀναγκαῖον
n a / a
ἢ εἰκός, καὶ τοῦτο μετὰ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ εἰκός.

19. ἢ secludendum, vel <# τις ἂν--ὀ ἢ coni. Vahlen: -εἥν:- τινα
<6>% Bywater: ἢ φυγήν Diintzer: προαίρεσίν τινα, φαῦλον μὲν ἐὰν φαύλη
ἢ, χρηστὸν K.7.A. apogr. 23. τι ἦθος Hermann: τὸ ἦθος codd. οὕτως
coni. Vahlen, cf. Polit. iii, 4. 1277 Ὁ 20: κα * τω A®: τὸ apogr,
25. ὥσπερ εἴρηται fort. secludendum: ἅπερ εἴρηται Hermann: lacunam

ante ὥσπερ statuit Spengel, quem seq. Susemihl. 29. ἀναγκαίου
apogr.; Bywater: ἀναγκαῖον A°: ἀναγκαίας Thurot. οἷον seclus. Εἰ. Miiller,
Sus. ed. 1, Christ. 30. <rod> ’Odvecéws Bywater. 31, Exem-

plum τοῦ ἀνομοίου post ῥῆσις intercidisse coni. Vettori ; cf. Susemihl, Christ.
35 et 86. ἣ ἀναγκαῖον Hermann. 36. - ὡς: "καὶ τοῦτο Bywater, fort. recte.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 9—XV. 7 51

Enough has now been said concerning the structure
of the incidents, and the proper constitution of the plot.

In respect of Character there’are four things to be
aimed at. } First, and most important, it must be good.
Now any speech or action that manifests a certain moral
purpose will be expressive of character: the character
will be good if the purpose is good. This rule applies
to persons of every class. Even a woman may be good,
and also a slave; though the woman may be said to be
an inferior being, and the slave is absolutely bad. The 2
second thing to aim at is propriety. There is a type of
manly valour; but for a woman to be valiant in this
sense, or terrible, would be inappropriate. Thirdly, ὃ
character must be true to life: for this is a distinct
thing from goodness and propriety, as here described.
The fourth point is consistency: for even though the 4
original character, who suggested the type, be inconsis-
tent, still he must be consistently inconsistent. As an 5
example of character needlessly bad, we have Menelaus
in the Orestes: of character incongruous and inappro-
priate, the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla, and the
speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, the Iphigenia at

Aulis,—for the suppliant Iphigenia in no way resembles
her later self.

As in the structure of the plot, so too in the por- 6
traiture of character, the poet should always aim either
αὖ the necessary or the probable. Thus a person of a
given character should speak or act in a given way, by
the rule either of necessity or of probability; just as
this event should follow that by necessary or prob-
able sequence. It is therefore evident that the un-7

52 XV. 7—XVI. 2. 1454 ἃ 37—1454 Ὁ 21

φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι καὶ τὰς λύσεις τῶν μύθων ἐξ αὐτοῦ δεῖ τοῦ Τ
4 / \ \ “ > a / ᾿ “A
1454b μύθου συμβαίνειν καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ ἐν TH Μηδείᾳ ἀπὸ μη-
a a \ / Φ \
χανῆς καὶ ἐν τῇ ᾿Ιλιάδι τὰ περὶ τὸν ἀπόπλουν" ἀλλὰ μη-
" / > A oe n 7 aA o \ fal
χανῇ χρηστέον ἐπὶ τὰ ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, ἢ ὅσα πρὸ τοῦ
7 Ae γὼ "τ ” 6 δδέ A of ο ἃ
γέγονεν ἃ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνθρωπον εἰδέναι, ἢ ὅσα ὕστερον ἃ
ἧς ΄ τ Pos δ \ > ,
5 δεῖται προωγορεύσεως καὶ ἀγγελίας" ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀποδί-
-" an ΟῚ Μ \ \ 3 > a /
δομεν τοῖς θεοῖς ὁρᾶν. ἄλογον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγ-
na \ lal
μασιν, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τῆς τραγῳδίας, οἷον τὸ ἐν τῷ Οἰδίποδι
τῷ Σοφοκλέους. ἐπεὶ δὲ μίμησίς ἐστιν ἣ τραγῳδία βεέλτι- 8
- - tal \
ovev «ἢ καθ᾽: ἡμᾶς, δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς eixovoypa-
. \ \ 2 al > / \ 297 \ ε ,
10 gous’ καὶ yap ἐκεῖνοι ἀποδιδόντες τὴν ἰδίαν μορφὴν ὁμοίους
n , ΄ giver ao. \ ,
ποιοῦντες καλλίους γράφουσιν" οὕτω καὶ τὸν ποιητὴν μιμού-
μενον καὶ ὀργίλους καὶ ῥᾳθύμους καὶ τἄλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα
ἔχοντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἠθῶν, τοιούτους ὄντας ἐπιεικεῖς ποιεῖν"
/
[wapddevypa σκληρότητος] οἷον τὸν ᾿Αχιλλέα ᾿Αγάθων καὶ
“ a rn a
15° Ὅμηρος. ταῦτα <&)> δεῖ διατηρεῖν καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὰς 9
\ \ 3 > / > 4 >’ 7 A a.
Tapa τὰ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκολουθούσας αἰσθήσεις TH ποιητικῇ
Ν Ν ᾽ 3 Ν Μ e 4 / + \
καὶ yap κατ᾽ αὐτὰς ἔστιν ἁμαρτάνειν πολλάκις, εἴρηται δὲ

\ 2. A > a b yi / e -
περι αὐτῶν ἐν τοις ἐκδεδομένοις λογοις tKAVDS.

ΧΥΙ ἀναγνώρισις δὲ τί μέν ἐστιν, εἴρηται πρότερον᾽ εἴδη
δὲ > / / \ ὙΦ lA \ /
20 δὲ ἀναγνωρίσεως, πρώτη μὲν ἡ ἀτεχνοτάτη Kal ἣ πλείστῃ

al ὃ 9 2 / ς ὃ \ a / 4 \ AM \
χρῶνται ov ἀπορίαν, ἡ διὰ TOV σημείων. τούτων δὲ τὰ μὲν 2

1454 Ὁ 2. ἀπόπλουν apogr.: ἁπλοῦν AS. 7. τὸ vel τῶ apogr.: 7d?
Ac; τὰ Ald. 9. ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς Stahr: ἡμᾶς codd. 14, παρά-
δείγμα σκληρότητος seclus. Bywater. 15. δὴ δεῖ Ald., Bekker: δὴ Ac;
δεῖ apogr. τὰς παρὰ τὰ Vel τὰ παρὰ τὰς apogr. : τὰς παρὰ τὰς AS. 20,
i πλείστῃ apogr. : ἡ πλείστη AS. 21. ἡ apogr.: ἢ Δ9,

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XV. 7—XVI. 2 53

ravelling of the plot, no less than the complication,

1454 must be brought about by the plot itself, and not by
Machinery,—as in the Medea, or in the Return of the
Greeks in the Iliad. Machinery should be employed
only for events external to the drama,—either such as
are previous to it and outside the sphere of human
knowledge, or subsequent to it and which need to be
foretold and.announced; for to the gods we ascribe the
power of seeing all things. Within the action there must
be nothing irrational. Ifthe irrational cannot be excluded,
it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is
the irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles.

Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who 8
are above the common level; the example of good portrait-
painters should be followed. They, while reproducing
the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness
which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too
the poet, in representing men quick or slow to anger, or
with other defects of character, should preserve the type
and yet ennoble it. In this way Achilles is portrayed
by Agathon and Homer.

‘These are rules the poet should observe. Nor should 9
he neglect those appeals to the senses, which, though not
among the essentials, are the concomitants of poetry ; for
here too there is much room for error. But of this we
have said enough in our published treatises.

XVI What Recognition is has been already explained.
We will now enumerate its kinds.
First, the least artistic form, which, from poverty of
wit, is commonly employed—recognition by signs. Of 2
these some are congenital,—such as ‘ the spear which the

54 XVI. 2—6. 1454 b 22—1455 a 5

/ a °9 K 3 /
σύμφυτα, οἷον “ λόγχην ἣν φοροῦσι Τηγενεῖς " ἢ ἀστέρας
“ > a / / \ te eg \ ’,
οἵους ἐν τῷ Θυέστῃ Καρκίνος, τὰ δὲ ἐπίκτητα, καὶ τούτων
\ \ > a ΄ 3 , \ Α΄, iS / \
Ta μὲν ἐν TO σώματι, οἷον oval, τὰ δὲ ἐκτός, τὰ περι-
-“ a \ \
25 δέραια Kal οἷον ἐν τῇ Τυροῖ διὰ τῆς σκάφης. ἔστιν δὲ καὶ 3
fol -“ \
τούτοις χρῆσθαι ἢ βέλτιον ἢ χεῖρον, οἷον ᾿Οδυσσεὺς διὰ
» »" / \ -“ r
τῆς οὐλῆς ἄλλως ἀνεγνωρίσθη ὑπὸ τῆς τροφοῦ καὶ ἄλλως
δια ites ας teee Ἶς ἢν ON τρεῖς " Ψ »
ὑπὸ τῶν συβοτῶν᾽ εἰσὶ γὰρ αἱ μὲν πίστεως ἕνεκα ἀτεχνό-
Tepat, καὶ αἱ τοιαῦται πᾶσαι, αἱ δὲ ἐκ περιπετείας, ὥσ-
30 περ ἡ ἐν τοῖς Νίπτροις, βελτίους. δεύτεραι δὲ αἱ πεποι- 4
/ [4 Ν n nr \ » e » 7 » “
ημέναι ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητοῦ, διὸ ἄτεχνοι. οἷον ᾿Ορέστης ἐν τῇ
Ἴ ’, > , Ὁ Ὀ / Nes / \ \ ὃ \ a
φυγενείᾳ ἀνεγνώρισεν ὅτι ᾿Ορέστης᾽ ἐκείνη μὲν yap διὰ τῆς
r - e
ἐπιστολῆς, ἐκεῖνος δὲ αὐτὸς λέγει ἃ βούλεται ὁ ποιητὴς GAN
> € a 4 As 4 a > / ς / b] / 267
οὐχ ὁ μῦθος" διὸ ἐγγύς τι τῆς εἰρημένης ἁμαρτίας ἐστίν, ἐξῆν
35 γὰρ ἂν ἔνια καὶ ἐνεγκεῖν. καὶ ἐν τῷ Σοφοκλέους Τηρεῖ ἡ
. n 7 / a
τῆς κερκίδος φωνή. ἡ τρίτη Sia μνήμης τῷ αἰσθέσθαι 5
50. e AB / a uA 39 \ \
14554 TL ἰδόντα, ὥσπερ ἡ ἐν Κυπρίοις τοῖς Δικαιογένους, ἰδὼν yap
\ \ 4 τ ee? / > / > 4
τὴν γραφὴν ἔκλαυσεν, καὶ ἡ ἐν ᾿Αλκίνου ἀπολόγῳ, ἀκούων
\ n θ a Ἂν θ \ 26 / ὅθ >
yap τοῦ κιθαριστοῦ καὶ μνησθεὶς ἐδάκρυσεν, ὅθεν ἀνεγνω-
7 \ a
ρίσθησαν. τετάρτη δὲ ἡ ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ, οἷον ἐν XonPopors, 6
[ὦ “ /
5 ὅτι ὅμοιός τις ἐλήλυθεν, ὅμοιος δὲ οὐθεὶς GAN ἢ ὁ "Opécrns,

24. περιδέραια Pazzi et apogr. pauca: περιδέρρεα ΑΘ: περὶ δέραια
Ald. 25. οἷον apogr.: of AS. 26. <é> ᾽Οδυσσεὺς Bywater.
31. <é> Ὀρέστης Bywater. 84, διὸ ἐγγύς τι Vahlen: διότι ἐγγὺς AY.
36. ἡ τρίτη Spengel: ἤτοι rye AC: τρίτη ἣ apogr. 1455 a 1. τοῖς.
apogr.: τῆς AS, 2. ἀπολόγῳ apogr.: ἀπὸ λόγων AS. 4.
“Χοηφόροις Vettori: χλοηφόροις AS.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVI. 2—6 55

earth-born race bear on their bodies, or the stars intro-
duced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are acquired
after birth; and of these some are bodily marks, as
scars; some external tokens, as necklaces, or the little
ark in the Tyro by which the discovery is effected. Even 3
these admit of more or less skilful treatment. Thus in
the recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the discovery is
made in one way by the nurse, in another by the herds-
men. This use of tokens for purposes of proof—and,
indeed, any formal proof with or without tokens—is an
inartistic mode of recognition. A better kind is that
which results from the turn of fortune; as in the Bath
scene in the Odyssey.

Next come the recognitions invented at will by the 4
poet, and on that account wanting in art. For example,
Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals the fact that he is
Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the letter ;
but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet,
not what the plot requires. This, therefore, is nearly
allied to the fault above mentioned :—for Orestes might
as well have brought tokens with him. Another
similar instance is the ‘voice of the shuttle’ in the
Tereus of Sophocles.

The third form of recognition is when the sight of 5
some object calls up a train of memory: as in the
Cyprians of Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into
tears on seeing a picture; or again in the Lay of
Alcinous, where Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the
lyre, recalls the past and weeps; and hence the recognition.

The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in 6
the Choephori:—‘Some one resembling me has come:

56 XVI. 6—XVIIL τ. 1455 ἃ 6—25

οὗτος ἄρα ἐλήλυθεν. καὶ ἡ ἸΤολυείδου τοῦ σοφιστοῦ περὶ τῆς
Ἰφιγενείας" εἰκὸς γὰρ τὸν ᾿Ορέστην συλλογίσασθαι, ὅτι ἥ τ᾽
ἀδελφὴ ἐτύθη καὶ αὐτῷ συμβαίνει θύεσθαι. καὶ ἐν τῷ

Θεοδέκτου Τυδεῖ, ὅτε ἐλθὼν ὡς εὑρήσων υἱὸν αὐτὸς ἀπόλ-

a 7 rn ἈΝ /
10 AvTat. καὶ ἡ ἐν τοῖς Φινείδαις, ἰδοῦσαι yap τὸν τόπον συνε-

/ \ e / Ψ > 4 “ > Lal
λογίσαντο τὴν εἱμαρμένην ὅτι ἐν τούτῳ εἵμαρτο ἀποθανεῖν
αὐταῖς, καὶ γὰρ ἐξετέθησαν ἐνταῦθα. ἔστιν δέ τις καὶ συν-
θετὴ ἐκ παραλογισμοῦ τοῦ θατέρου, οἷον ἐν τῷ ᾿Οδυσσεῖ τῷ
ψευδαγγέλῳ" ὁ μὲν γὰρ τὸ τόξον ἔφη γνώσεσθαι ὃ οὐχ
4 / Ν / e \ > MA > rn \ 4
ἑωράκει, TO δέ, ὡς δὴ ἐκείνου ἀναγνωριοῦντος διὰ τούτου,
> / / lal \ / > s εὐ
ἐποίησε παραλογισμόν. πασῶν δὲ βελτίστη ἀναγνώρισις ἡ
b] en) a / fol b] / / 9 saree
ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν πραγμάτων Ths ἐκπλήξεως γιγνομένης δι᾽ εἰκό-
των, οἷον [6] ἐν τῷ Σοφοκλέους Οἰδίποδι καὶ τῇ ᾿Ιφιγενείᾳ"

ΡΣ A ,, » n / ce A na
εἰκὸς yap βούλεσθαι ἐπιθεῖναι γράμματα. ai yap τοιαῦται

, [al ὔ 4
20 μόναι ἄνευ τῶν πεποιημένων σημείων Kal περιδεραίων. δεύ-

XVII

τεραι δὲ ai ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ.
δεῖ δὲ τοὺς μύθους συνιστάναι καὶ τῇ λέξει συναπερ-
H ρ
΄ θ Ψ ΄ “38 , θέ ΟΝ τ \
γάζεσθαι ὅτι μάλιστα πρὸ ὀμμάτων τιθέμενον" οὕτω yap
Xx > / ε Cm [2 5 > ΩΝ =
ἂν ἐναργέστατα [ὁ] ὁρῶν ὥσπερ Tap’ αὐτοῖς γιγνόμενος τοῖς

, Ὁ ἘΝ \ , ‘ \ aN 6 4
TTPATTOMEVOLS EVPLOKOL TO πρέπον Καὶ 1KLOTA ἂν λανθάνοι

6. Πολυείδου apogr. : Πολυείδους AS, 10. Φινείδαις Reiz: φινίδαις AS.
18, τοῦ θατέρου Bursian, praeeunte Hermann: τοῦ θεάτρου codd. 14,
ὁ μὲν apogr. : τὸ μὲν AS, 15. ὡς δὴ Tyrwhitt: ὡς δι᾿ codd. 16,

ἐποίησε Ald., Bekker: ποιῆσαι codd: Locus autem prope desperatus est.
‘Multo plura legisse videtur Arabs quam nostri codices praebent’ (Mar-
goliouth). 17. ἐκπλήξεως apogr. : πλήξεως AS, 18. é6seclus. Vahlen.
20. περιδεραίων apogr. (cf. 1454 Ὁ 24), Vahlen ed. 3: dépewy A°: δεραίων.
Vahlen ed. 2. 22. συναπεργάζεσθαι] ἀπεργάζεσθαι Susemihl, 24.

. ἐναργέστατα apogr.: évepyéorara A®. ὁ οἵη, Ald.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVI. 6—XVII. 1 57

no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore Orestes has
come, Again, there is the discovery made by Iphigenia
in the play of Polyeidus the Sophist. It was natural
for Orestes to reason thus with himself :—‘ As my sister
was sacrificed, so too it is my lot to be sacrificed.’ So,
again, in the Tydeus of Theodectes:—‘I came to find
my son, and I must perish myself’ So too in the
Phineidae: the women, on seeing the place, inferred their
fate:—‘ Here we are fated to die, for here we were
exposed.’ Again, there is a recognition combined with a 7
false inference on the part of one of the characters, as in
the Odysseus Disguised as a Messenger. A man said he
would know the bow,—which, however, he had not seen.
This remark led Odysseus to imagine that the other
would recognise him through the bow, and so suggested
a false inference.

But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises 8
from the incidents themselves, where the startling effect
is produced by probable means. Such is that in the
Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; for it was
natural that Iphigenia should wish to send a letter
by Orestes. These recognitions stand on their own
merits, and do not need the aid of tokens invented for
the purpose, or necklaces. Next come the recognitions by
process of reasoning.

XVII In constructing the plot and working it out with the
help of language, the poet should place the scene, as far |
as possible, before his eyes. In this way, seeing every-
thing with the utmost vividness, as if he were a spectator
of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with
it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies.

58 XVII. 1—3. 1455 a 26—1455 b 10

nr , .

[τὸ] τὰ ὑπεναντία. σημεῖον δὲ τούτου ὃ ἐπετιμᾶτο ἹΚαρκίνῳ

nr \ 4: 3 \
ὁ yap ᾿Αμφιάραος ἐξ ἱεροῦ ἀνήει, ὃ μὴ ὁρῶντα [τὸν
θεατὴν] ἐλάνθανεν, ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς σκηνῆς ἐξέπεσεν δυσχερα-
a “ nr na /
νάντων τοῦτο τῶν θεατῶν. ὅσα δὲ δυνατὸν καὶ τοῖς σχή-

Ν fal A

30 μασιν συναπεργαζόμενον. πιθανώτατοι yap ἀπὸ τῆς αὐτῆς 2
val ε /
φύσεως οἱ ἐν τοῖς πάθεσίν εἰσιν Kal χειμαίνει ὁ χειμαζόμενος
καὶ χαλεπαίνει ὁ ὀργιζόμενος ἀχηθινώτατα. διὸ εὐφυοῦς ἡ
4 3 x a. / \ e \ 5 e δὲ
ποιητική ἐστιν ἢ μανικοῦ" τούτων γὰρ οἱ μὲν εὔπλαστοι οἱ δὲ
ἐκστατικοί εἰσιν. τούτους τε τοὺς λόγους καὶ τοὺς πεποιημέ- ὃ
Cal n /
1455 b vous δεῖ Kal αὐτὸν ποιοῦντα ἐκτίθεσθαι καθόλου, εἶθ᾽ οὕτως
ἐπεισοδιοῦν καὶ παρατείνειν. λέγω δὲ οὕτως ἂν θεωρεῖσθαι
a / \
τὸ καθόλου, οἷον τῆς ᾿Ιφιγενείας" τυθείσης τινὸς κόρης καὶ
ἀφανισθείσης ἀδήλως τοῖς θύσασιν, ἱδρυνθείσης δὲ εἰς ἄλλην
, > 2 Ld φ \ / 4 A n Ζ 4

5 χώραν, ἐν 7 νόμος ἣν τοὺς ξένους θύειν TH θεῷ, ταύτην ἔσχε
τὴν ἱερωσύνην" χρόνῳ δὲ ὕστερον τῷ ἀδελφῷ συνέβη ἐλθεῖν
a e / Ν Ν let 5 a ¢ 6 \ ὃ / > ff ba na
τῆς ἱερείας (τὸ δὲ ὅτι ἀνεῖλεν ὁ θεὸς διά τινα αἰτίαν, ἔξω Tod
καθόλου [ἐλθεῖν ἐκεῖ], καὶ ἐφ᾽ ὅ τι δέ, ἔξω τοῦ μύθου), ἐλθὼν
δὲ καὶ ληφθεὶς θύεσθαι μέλλων ἀνεγνώρισεν, εἴθ᾽ ὡς Kupe-

wf?

/ \ Ν
10 πίδης εἴθ᾽ ὡς ἸΠολύειδος ἐποίησεν, κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς εἰπὼν ὅτι

26. τὸ om. apogr. 27. ἀνήει apogr.: ἂν εἴη A®. ὁρῶντα codd. :
ὁρῶντ᾽ ἂν Vahlen. τὸν θεατὴν seclusi: τὸν ποιητὴν Dacier, Susemihl.
80. ἀπ᾽ αὐτῆς τῆς Tyrwhitt: quod si recipimus, legend. of ἐν τοῖς πάθεσίν
εἶσιν (v. 31)=of dm’ adr. τῆς φυσ. ἐν τοῖς κ.τ.λ, ᾿ς 84, ἐκστατικοί
Vettori: ἐξεταστικοί codd. Huius loci ordo turbatur; et sunt quidem
plura huiusmodi in hoe capite. τούτους τε τοὺς vel τούς τε apogr.:
τούτους te A® (Vahlen, Christ), sed ne Graece quidem dicitur: τούς
τε λόγους καὶ τοὺς παρειλημμένους coni. Vahlen, haud scio an recte,
ut sensus sit, ‘even the traditional story, when recast by the poet,
should be sketched in its general outline.’ Quod si non receperis,
καὶ αὐτὸν ποιοῦντα secludendum esse suspicor tanquam gloss. ad τοὺς
πεποιημένους. 1455 b 2. παρατείνειν Vettori: περιτείνειν Α΄, 8.
καθόλου] fort. μύθου Vahlen. μύθου] fort. καθόλου Vahlen. Secludendum
videtur aut ἐλθεῖν ἐκεῖ (Bekker ed. 8) aut ἔξω rod καθόλου (Diintzer,
Susemihl),

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVII. 1—3 59

The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in
Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple.
This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see
the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed,
the audience being offended at the oversight,
Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best
of his power, with appropriate gestures; for those who 2
feel emotion are most impressive by force of sympathy.
One who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages,
with the most lifelike reality. Hence poetry implies
either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness.
In the one case a man can take the mould of any
character; in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self.
The poet, whether he accejts the traditional subjects, or 3
. 1455b invents new ones, should, in shaping them himself, first
| sketch the general outline of the play, and then fill in
᾿ the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan of
thedphigenia, for instance, may be thus seen. A young girl
is sacrificed; she disappears mysteriously from the eyes
of those who sacrificed her; she is transported to
another country, where the custom is to offer up all
strangers to the goddess. To this ministry she is
appointed. Some time later her brother chances to
arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason
ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of
the play. The purpose, again, of his coming is outside
the action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, and,
when on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is.
The mode of recognition may be either that of Euripides
or of Polyeidus, in whose play he exclaims very
naturally :—‘So it was not my sister only, but I too,

60 XVIL 3—XVIII. 1. 1455 Ὁ 11—31

‘ \ ” a
οὐκ dpa μόνον τὴν ἀδελφὴν ἀλχὰ Kal αὐτὸν ἔδει τυθῆναι,
n / \
καὶ ἐντεῦθεν ἡ σωτηρία. μετὰ ταῦτα δὲ ἤδη ὑποθέντα τὰ
σ΄ Lal \
ὀνόματα ἐπεισοδιοῦν, ὅπως δὲ ἔσται οἰκεῖα τὰ ἐπεισόδια,
3 / , 9.4 / \ ς
οἷον ἐν τῷ ᾿Ορέστῃ ἡ μανία δι᾽ ἧς ἐλήφθη καὶ ἡ σω-
n \
15 τηρία διὰ τῆς καθάρσεως. ἐν μὲν οὖν τοῖς δράμασιν τὰ
/ / / / a
ἐπεισόδια σύντομα, ἡ δ᾽ ἐποποιία τούτοις μηκύνεται. τῆς
ἘΣ τὶν ᾿ /
yap Ὀδυσσείας μικρὸς ὁ λόγος ἐστίν" ἀποδημοῦντός τινος
ἔτη πολλὰ καὶ παραφυλαττομένου ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἰ]οσειδῶνος καὶ
LA » » \ a y “ Pes 4 ef \ "4
μόνου ὄντος, ἔτι δὲ τῶν οἴκοι οὕτως ἐχόντων ὥστε τὰ χρή-
e \ / > / \ Ν ev >
20 ματα ὑπὸ μνηστήρων ἀναλίσκεσθαι Kal τὸν υἱὸν ἐπιβου-
\ ad \
Never Oat, αὐτὸς δὴ ἀφικνεῖται χειμασθεὶς Kal ἀναγνωρίσας
\ oN 5 7 53. Ν \ διττὴ \ > 9 \
[τινὰς αὐτὸς] ἐπιθέμενος αὐτὸς μὲν ἐσώθη τοὺς δ᾽ ἐχθροὺς
a /
διέφθειρε. τὸ μὲν οὖν ἴδιον τοῦτο, τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα ἐπεισόδια.
/ \ ;
XVIII ἔστι δὲ πάσης τραγῳδίας τὸ μὲν δέσις τὸ δὲ λύσις,
25 τὰ μὲν ἔξωθεν καὶ ἔνια τῶν ἔσωθεν πολλάκις ἡ δέσις, τὸ
/
δὲ λοιπὸν ἡ λύσις. λέγω δὲ δέσιν μὲν εἶναι τὴν ἀπ᾽ ap-
a / 4 fa) / a / > > Φ /
χῆς μέχρι τούτου τοῦ μέρους ὃ ἔσχατόν ἐστιν ἐξ οὗ μεταβαί-
/ / n a a
νειν εἰς εὐτυχίαν κ κ, λύσιν δὲ THY ἀπὸ THs ἀρχῆς τῆς μετα-
/ / , e @& > a a a /
βάσεως μέχρι τέλους" ὥσπερ ἐν TH Λυγκεῖ τῷ Θεοδέκτου
/ a
30 δέσις μὲν τά TE προπεπραγμένα Kal ἡ τοῦ παιδίου λῆψις

καὶ πάλιν ἱ ἡ αὐτῶν δὴ +t «λύσις δ᾽ ἡ-- ἀπὸ τῆς αἰτιάσεως

15. δράμασιν (vel ἄσμασι) apogr.: ἅρμασιν A%, 17. μικρὸς
apogr.: μακρὸς A®: ‘sermo non est longus’ Arabs, h., 6. οὐ
μακρὸς (Margoliouth). 19. ἔτει apogr.: ἐπεὶ AS, 21. δὴ coni.
Vahlen: δὲ codd. 22. τινὰς αὐτὸς seclusi: αὐτὸς seclus. Spengel.
25. πολλάκις post ἔξωθεν collocavit Ueberweg. 28. «ἐκ δυστυχίας
συμβαίνει ἢ ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν :- addenda esse coni. Vahlen. 81.
ἡ αὐτῶν δὴ «ἀπαγωγή, λύσις δ᾽ ἡ- coni. Vahlen, δήλωσις pro ἀπαγωγὴ
coni. Christ: ‘et raptus infantis, et ea quae patefecit, solutio autem
est quod fiebat etc.’ Arabs. De ἡ αὐτῶν δὴ equidem valde dubito,

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVII. 3—XVIII. 1 61

who was doomed to be sacrificed’; and by that remark
he is saved.

After this, the names being once assumed, it remains 4
to fill in the episodes. We must see that they are
relevant to the action. In the case of Orestes, for
example, there is the madness which led to his capture,
and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite.
In a drama, the episodes are short, but it is these that 5
give extension to the Epic poem. Thus the story of
the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is
absent from home for many years; he is jealously
watched by Poseidon, and left desolate. Meanwhile his
home is in a wretched plight—suitors are wasting his
substance and plotting against his son. At length,
tempest-tost, he arrives and reveals who he is; he
attacks his enemies, destroys them and is preserved him-
self. This is the essence of the plot; the rest is episode.

XVIII kEvery tragedy falls into two parts,—Complication
and Unravelling or Dénouwement. Incidents extraneous
to the action are frequently combined with a portion of
the action proper to form the Complication; the rest is
the Unravelling. By the Complication I mean all that
comes between the beginning of the action and the part
which marks the turning point from bad fortune to good
<or good fortune to bad>. The Unravelling is that which
comes between the beginning of the change and the end.
Thus, in the Lynceus of Theodectes, the Complication
consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama, the
seizure of the child, and then <the arrest of the parents.
The Unravelling> extends from the accusation of murder
to the end.

62 XVIII. 2—5. 1455 Ὁ 32—1456 a 17

τοῦ θανάτου μέχρι τοῦ τέλους. τραγῳδίας δὲ εἴδη εἰσὶ τέσ- 2
σαρα, [τοσαῦτα γὰρ καὶ τὰ μέρη ἐλέχθη,] ἡ μὲν πεπλεγ-
μένη, ἧς τὸ ὅλον ἐστὶν περιπέτεια καὶ ἀναγνώρισις, <1) δὲ
ἁπλῆ,-- ἡ δὲ παθητική, οἷον οἵ τε Αἴαντες καὶ οἱ ᾿Ἰξίονες,
1456 a ἡ δὲ ἠθική, οἷον αἱ Φθιώτιδες καὶ ὁ Πηλεύς. ἱ τὸ δὲ τέταρ-
τον onst οἷον ai te Φορκίδες καὶ ἸἹΤρομηθεὺς καὶ ὅσα ἐν
ἅδου. μάλιστα μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα δεῖ πειρᾶσθαι ἔχειν, εἰ ὃ
δὲ μή, τὰ μέγιστα καὶ πλεῖστα, ἄλλως τε καὶ ὡς νῦν
5 συκοφαντοῦσιν τοὺς ποιητάς" γεγονότων γὰρ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον
μέρος ἀγαθῶν ποιητῶν, ἑκάστου τοῦ ἰδίου ἀγαθοῦ ἀξιοῦσι
τὸν ἕνα ὑπερβάλλειν. δίκαιον δὲ καὶ τραγῳδίαν ἄλλην
καὶ τὴν αὐτὴν λέγειν οὐδεν <i> ἴσως --ὡς-- τῷ μύθῳ" τοῦτο
δέ, ὧν ἡ αὐτὴ πλοκὴ καὶ λύσις. πολλοὶ δὲ πλέξαντες εὖ
10 λύουσι κακῶς" δεῖ δὲ ἄμφω ἀεὶ κρατεῖσθαι. χρὴ δὲ ὅπερ 4
εἴρηται πολλάκις μεμνῆσθαι καὶ μὴ ποιεῖν ἐποποιικὸν σύ-
στημα τραγῳδίαν. ἐποποιικὸν δὲ λέγω [δὲ] τὸ πολύμυθον,
οἷον εἴ τις τὸν τῆς Ιλιάδος ὅλον ποιοῖ μῦθον. ἐκεῖ μὲν γὰρ
διὰ τὸ μῆκος λαμβάνει τὰ μέρη τὸ πρέπον μέγεθος, ἐν
15 δὲ τοῖς δράμασι πολὺ παρὰ τὴν ὑπόληψιν ἀποβαίνει. ση- 5
μεῖον δέ, ὅσοι πέρσιν Ἰλίου ὅλην ἐποίησαν καὶ μὴ κατὰ

μέρος ὥσπερ Εὐριπίδης, -«-ἢ-- Νιόβην καὶ μὴ ὥσπερ Αἰ-

88. τοσαῦτα yap... ἐλέχθη seclus. Susemihl ed. 1, τὰ μέρη] τὰ μύθου Sus.
ed. 2 sec. Ueberweg. 84. <7 δὲ ἁπλῆ:- cum definitione deesse susp.
Vahlen. 1456 8.1. τὸ δὲ τέταρτον éns] τὸ δὲ τερατῶδες Schrader: τὸ
δὲ τέταρτον «ἡ ἁπλῆ, οἷον... παρέκβασις δὲ ἣ τερατώ :- δηὴς Ueberweg (οἴ.
Susemihl) : τὸ δὲ τέταρτον ὄψις (cf. 1458 a 5) Bywater. Sed τὰ εἴδη in
hoc loco eadem utique esse debent quae in xxiv. 1. 4, re apogr. :
γε AS. 6. ἑκάστου apogr. : ἕκαστον ΑΞ. 8, οὐδενὶ ἴσως ὡς Bonitz:
οὐδὲν ἴσως τῷ codd. τοῦτο] ταὐτὸ Teichmiiller: τούτῳ Bursian. 10.
κρατεῖσθαι (cf. Polit. vii. 13. 1331 Ὁ 88) Vahlen, ‘ prensarunt utrumque’
Arabs : κροτεῖσθαι codd. 12, δὲ alterum om, apogr. 17. #add.
Vahlen.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVIII. 2—5 63

There are four kinds of Tragedy,—first, the Com- 2
plicated, depending entirely on reversal of fortune
and recognition ; next, the Simple; next, the Pathetic
(where the motive is passion),—such as the tragedies on
Ajax and Ixion; next, the Ethical (where the motives
are ethical)—such as the Phthiotides and the Peleus.
< We here exclude the supernatural kind >, such as
the Phorcides, the Prometheus, and tragedies whose
scene is in the lower world. The poet should endeavour, 3
if possible, to combine all poetic merits; or failing that,
the greatest number and those the most important;
the more so, in face of the cavilling criticism of
the day. For whereas there have hitherto been good
poets, each in his own branch, the critics now expect
one man to surpass all others in their several lines of
excellence.

In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different, the
best test to take is the plot. Identity exists where the
Complication and Unravelling are the same.’ Many poets
tie the knot well, but unravel it ill. Both arts,
however, should always be mastered.

Again, we should remember what has been often said, 4
and not make a Tragedy into an Epic structure. By an
Epic structure I mean oné with a multiplicity of plots:
as if, for instance, you were to make a tragedy out of
the entire story of the Iliad. In the Epic poem, owing
to its length, each part assumes its proper magnitude.
In the drama the result is far from the expectation.
The proof is that the poets who have dramatised the 5
whole story of the Fall of Troy, instead of selecting
portions, like Euripides; or who—unlike Aeschylus—

64 XVIII. 5—XIX. 3. 1456 a 18—1456 Ὁ 3

4 x 39 / x fal > / > \ ΕἿΣ "2
σχύλος, ἢ ἐκπίπτουσιν ἢ κακῶς ἀγωνίζονται, ἐπεὶ καὶ Ayd-
ses > , ΕΣ ἐν \ n , \
θων ἐξέπεσεν ἐν τούτῳ μόνῳ ἐν δὲ ταῖς περιπετείαις [Kal
20 ἐν τοῖς ἁπλοῖς πράγμασι] στοχάζεται ὧν βούλονται θαυ-
mn 8 \ \ a \ / BA \
μαστῶς" τραγικὸν yap τοῦτο Kal φιλάνθρωπον. ἔστιν δὲ
a ef e \ \ \ / rhe nw
τοῦτο, ὅταν ὁ σοφὸς μὲν μετὰ πονηρίας δὲ ἐξαπατηθῇ, ὥσπερ
ε al an
Σίσυφος, καὶ ὁ ἀνδρεῖος μὲν ἄδικος δὲ ἡττηθῇ. ἔστιν δὲ
fal r Jee’ “ 3 / 7 8. ἂν \ /
τοῦτο εἰκὸς ὥσπερ ᾿Αγάθων λέγει, εἰκὸς yap γίνεσθαι
25 πολλὰ καὶ παρὰ τὸ εἰκός. καὶ τὸν χορὸν δὲ ἕνα δεῖ
ὑπολαβεῖν τῶν ὑποκριτῶν καὶ μόριον εἶναι τοῦ ὅλου καὶ
συναγωνίζεσθαι μὴ ὥσπερ Ἐὐριπίδῃ ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ Σοφοκλεῖ.
τοῖς δὲ λοιποῖς τὰ ἀδόμενα <ovdSev> μᾶλλον τοῦ μύθου ἢ
/
ἄλλης Tpaywdias éotiv’ διὸ ἐμβόλιμα ἄδουσιν πρώτου
30 ἄρξαντος ᾿Αγάθωνος τοῦ τοιούτου. καίτοι τί διαφέρει ἢ
/ fl
ἐμβόλιμα ddew ἢ εἰ ῥῆσιν ἐξ ἄλλου εἰς ἄλλο ἁρμόττοι
ἢ ἐπεισόδιον ὅλον;
XIX περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἄλλων ἤδη εἴρηται, λοιπὸν δὲ περὶ
λέξεως καὶ διανοίας εἰπεῖν. τὼ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὴν διάνοιαν ἐν
-“ ς n / nr \ ΕΣ a > /
35 τοῖς περὶ ῥητορικῆς κείσθω, τοῦτο γὰρ ἴδιον μᾶλλον ἐκείνης
an 068 4 δὲ \ \ ὃ 7 “ “ ς \
τῆς μεθόδου. ἔστι δὲ κατὰ τὴν. διάνοιαν ταῦτα, ὅσα ὑπὸ
n / tal a / \ 4 / >
τοῦ λόγου δεῖ παρασκευασθῆναι. μέρη δὲ τούτων TO TE ἀπο-
δεικνύναι καὶ τὸ λύειν καὶ τὸ πάθη παρασκευάζειν, οἷον
/ rn
1456 b ἔλεον ἢ φόβον ἢ ὀργὴν καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, καὶ ere μέγεθος
\ / δῆ ἈΝ \ PJ lal 4 > \
καὶ μικρότητας. δῆλον δὲ ὅτι καὶ [ἐν] τοῖς πράγμασιν ἀπὸ

τῶν αὐτῶν ἰδεῶν δεῖ χρῆσθαι, ὅταν ἢ ἐλεεινὰ ἢ δεινὰ ἢ

19. καὶ ἐν... πράγμασι seclus, Susemihl. 20. στοχάζεται Heinsius :
στοχάζονται codd. 22. δὲ add. apogr. 24. εἰκὸς} καὶ εἰκὸς
Susemihl, qui τραγικὸν. .. φιλάνθρωπον post ἡττηθῇ collocat. 27.

ὥσπερ... . ὥσπερ] ὥσπερ Tap’... ὥσπερ παρὰ Ald., Bekker. 28. ἀδόμενα
Maggi, ‘quae canuntur’ Arabs: διδόμενα AS. οὐδὲν add. Vahlen, ‘ nihil
.. . aliud amplius’ Arabs: οὐ add. Maggi. 88. ἤδη apogr.: ἠδ᾽ AS.
84. καὶ Hermann: ἢ codd. 1456 Ὁ 2 μικρότητας A®: σμικρότητα
apogr. ἐν seclus. Ueberweg (cf. Spengel). ἜὁῥβΧι ἰδεῶν apogr. : εἰδεῶν AS.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVIII. 5—XIX. 3 65

have taken the whole tale of Niobe, either fail utterly or
figure badly on the stage. Even Agathon has been
known to fail from this one defect. In his reversals of
fortune, however, he shows a marvellous skill in the
effort to hit the popular taste—to produce a tragic
effect that satisfies the moral sense. This effect is 6
produced when the clever rogue, like Sisyphus, is
cheated, or the brave villain defeated. Such an event
is probable in Agathon’s sense of the word: ‘it is
probable, he says, ‘that many things should happen
contrary to probability.’

The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the7
actors; it should be an integral part of the whole, and
share in the action, in the manner not of Euripides but
of Sophocles. As for the later poets, their choral songs
pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of
any other tragedy. They are, therefore, sung as mere
interludes,—a practice first begun by Agathon. Yet
what difference is there between introducing such choral
interludes, and transferring a speech, or even a whole act,
from one play to another ?

XIX It remains to speak of the Diction and the Thought,
the other parts of Tragedy having been already discussed.
Concerning the Thought, we may assume what is said
in the Rhetoric; to which inquiry the subject more
strictly belongs. Under Thought is included every effect
which has to be produced by speech; in particular— 2
proof and refutation; the excitation of the feelings, such ©
as pity, fear, anger, and the like; the heightening or
extenuating of facts. Further, it is evident that the 3
dramatic incidents must be treated from the same points

66 XIX. 3—XX. 2. 1456 b 4—28

μεγάλα ἢ εἰκότα δέῃ παρασκευάζειν" πλὴν τοσοῦτον δια-
5 φέρει, ὅτι τὰ μὲν δεῖ φαίνεσθαι ἄνευ διδασκαλίας, τὰ δὲ
ἐν τῷ λόγῳ ὑπὸ τοῦ λέγοντος παρασκευάζεσθαι καὶ παρὰ
Ν / / / \ x Μ rn / » >
τὸν λόγον γίγνεσθαι. τί yap ἂν εἴη TOD λέγοντος ἔργον, εἰ
φαίνοιτο ἤδη ἃ δεῖ καὶ μὴ διὰ τὸν λόγον ; τῶν δὲ περὶ τὴν 4
λέξιν ev μέν ἐστιν εἶδος θεωρίας τὰ σχήματα τῆς λέξεως,
το ἅ ἐστιν εἰδέναι τῆς ὑποκριτικῆς καὶ τοῦ τὴν τοιαύτην ἔχον-
> 4 Δ. \ \ 7 oA /
Tos ἀρχιτεκτονικήν, οἷον τί ἐντολὴ Kal τί εὐχὴ Kal διή-
7. ΕΝ \ Εις ye “ἐν
γησις καὶ ἀπειλὴ καὶ ἐρώτησις καὶ ἀπόκρισις καὶ εἴ τι
Μ' n \ \ \ , a rA >O\
ἄλλο τοιοῦτον. παρὰ γὰρ τὴν τούτων γνῶσιν ἢ ἄγνοιαν οὐδὲν 5
> \ Ἁ > / ,ὔ Ὁ ΔΨ
εἰς τὴν ποιητικὴν ἐπιτίμημα φέρεται ὅ τι καὶ ἄξιον σπου-
15 δῆς. τί γὰρ ἄν τις ὑπολάβοι ἡμαρτῆσθαι ἃ ἹΤρωταγόρας
> no ” »} > 7 9 lee awe "
ἐπιτιμᾷ, ὅτι εὔχεσθαι οἰόμενος ἐπιτάττει εἰπὼν “μῆνιν ἄει-
δὲ Ged,” τὸ γὰρ κελεῦσαι φησὶν ποιεῖν τι ἢ μὴ ἐπίταξίς
ἐστιν. διὸ παρείσθω ὡς ἄλλης καὶ οὐ τῆς ποιητικῆς ὃν
θεώρημα.
xx [τῆς δὲ λέξεως ἁπάσης τάδ᾽ ἐστὶ τὰ μέρη, στοιχεῖον
συλλαβὴ σύνδεσμος ὄνομα ῥῆμα [ἄρθρον] πτῶσις λόγος.
an Ν iD > \ 5» ’ὔ » -“ ἣν
στουχεῖον μὲν οὖν ἐστιν φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δὲ 2
ἀλλ᾽ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνετὴ γίγνεσθαι φωνή" καὶ γὰρ τῶν
θηρίων εἰσὶν ἀδιαίρετοι φωναὶ ὧν οὐδεμίαν λέγω στοι-
a 4 \ / / a \ ἍΝ \
25 xelov. ταύτης δὲ μέρη τό Te φωνῆεν καὶ τὸ ἡμίφωνον καὶ 3
ἄφωνον. ἔστιν δὲ φωνῆεν μὲν «τὸ-- ἄνευ προσβολῆς ἔχον
\ > / δεν \ \ oN a Ν
φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, ἡμίφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ προσβολῆς ἔχον
φωνὴν ἀκουστήν, οἷον τὸ Σ καὶ τὸ Ῥ, ἄφωνον δὲ τὸ μετὰ
8. φαίνοιτο scripsi: φανοῖτο codd. ἤδη ἃ δεῖ Tyrwhitt: ἤδη Castelvetro :
ἤδη δι᾽ αὑτὰ Susemihl: ἡδέα codd. Vahlen ed. 3: ἣ δέοι Vahlen ed. 2.
21. ἄρθρον seclus. Hartung (cf. Susemihl): ante ὄνομα posuit Spengel

(quod confirm. Arabs): σύνδεσμος <> ἄρθρον ὄνομα ῥῆμα Steinthal.
23. συνθετὴ apogr., Arabs ‘ compositae voci.’

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIX. 3—XX. 3 67

of view as the dramatic speeches, when the object is to

1456» evoke the sense of pity, fear, grandeur, or probability.

XxX

The only difference is, that the incidents should speak
for themselves without verbal exposition; while the
effects aimed at in a speech should be produced by the
speaker, and as a result of the speech. For what were
the need of a speaker, if the proper impression were at
once conveyed, quite apart from what he says ?

Next, as regards Diction. One branch of the4
inquiry treats of the Figures of Speech. But this
province of knowledge belongs to the art of Declamation,
and to the masters of that science. It includes, for
instance,—what is a command, a prayer, a narrative, a
threat, a question, an answer; and so forth. To know or 5
not to know these things involves no serious censure
upon the poet’s art. For who can admit the fault
imputed to Homer by Protagoras,—that in the words,
‘Sing, goddess, of the wrath, he gives a command
under the idea that he utters a prayer? For to call on
some one to do or not to do is, he says, a command.
We may, therefore, pass this over as an inquiry that
belongs to another art, not.to poetry.

[Language in general includes the following parts :—
the Letter, the Syllable, the Connecting words, the Noun,
the Verb, the Inflexion, the Sentence or Phrase.

A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such 2
sound, but only one from which an intelligible sound can
be formed. For even brutes utter indivisible sounds,
none of which I call a letter. Letters are of three 3
kinds,—-vowels, semi-vowels, and mutes. A vowel is
that which without contact of tongue or lip has an

68 XX. 3—8. 1456 Ὁ 29—1457 a το

προσβολῆς καθ᾽ αὑτὸ μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔχον φωνήν, μετὰ δὲ
lol / \
30 τῶν ἐχόντων τινὰ φωνὴν γινόμενον ἀκουστόν, οἷον τὸ Τ' καὶ
fel nr /
τὸ A. ταῦτα δὲ διαφέρει σχήμασίν τε τοῦ στόματος Kal 4
τόποις καὶ δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι καὶ μήκει καὶ βραχύ-

" \ 2e7 \ ,ὕ eee, ἐν ᾿ \ 4
τητι, ἔτι δὲ ὀξύτητι καὶ βαρύτητι καὶ τῷ μέσῳ" περὶ ὧν
καθ᾽ ἕκαστον ἐν τοῖς μετρικοῖς προσήκει θεωρεῖν. συλλαβὴ ὕ

35 δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος συνθετὴ ἐξ ἀφώνου * * καὶ φωνὴν
ἔχοντος. καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΤᾺ ἄνευ τοῦ Ῥ συλλαβὴ καὶ μετὰ
τοῦ Ῥ, οἷον τὸ TPA. ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων θεωρῆσαι τὰς δια-

\ a a > / 43 Ἂν ΡΝ
φορὰς τῆς μετρικῆς ἐστιν. σύνδεσμος δέ ἐστιν φωνὴ ἄσημος 6
A BA 4 + al \ / \ > /
1461 1) οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειό-
νων φωνῶν, πεφυκυῖα [συν]τίθεσθαι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων
καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου" ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν φω-

- a n - / \
νῶν μιᾶς, σημαντικῶν δέ, ποιεῖν πέφυκεν μίαν σημαντικὴν

φωνήν, οἷον τὸ ἀμφί καὶ τὸ περί Kal τὰ ἄλλα" --ἢ-- φωνὴ 7
ἄσημος ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ, ἣν μὴ

ς / > > n / / > ες / »
ἁρμόττει ἐν ἀρχῇ λόγου τιθέναι καθ᾽ αὑτήν, οἷον μέν, ἤτοι,
δέ. [ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος ἣ οὔτε κωλύει οὔτε ποιεῖ φωνὴν
μίαν σημαντικὴν ἐκ πλειόνων φωνῶν πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι καὶ

n \ al ,
10 ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου.) ὄνομα δέ ἐστι φωνὴ 8

35. Post ἀφώνου intercidisse videtur -- ἢ ἐξ ἀφώνου καὶ ἡμιφώνου:-. Post
φωνὴν ἔχοντος coni. Christ <# πλειόνων ἀφώνων καὶ φωνὴν exovros>.
86. καὶ γυρτὸ ΓΑ... τοῦ P] Tyrwhitt: καὶ γὰρ τὸ ΤΡ ἄνευ τοῦ A... μετὰ τοῦ
AAS: καὶ γὰρ τὸ ἄνευ τοῦ TP... μετὰ τοῦ ΤῸ M. Schmidt: καὶ γὰρ τὸ TP οὐκ
ἔστι συλλαβή, ἀλλὰ μετὰ τοῦ A Margoliouth, collato Arabe, ‘nam Τ' et P
sine A non faciunt syllabam, quoniam tantum fiunt syllaba cum A.’
1457 a 2. πεφυκυῖα τίθεσθαι Winstanley: πεφυκυῖαν συντίθεσθαι codd.
2-8. locus valde perturbatus. In restituendo secutus sum Susemihl
(praeeunte Hartung). Ita vulgo legitur: καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄκρων καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ
μέσου, ἣν μὴ ἁρμόττει (ἣν μὴ ἁρμόττῃ apogr., Bekker) ἐν ἀρχῇ τιθέναι
καθ᾽ αὐτόν (αὑτήν Tyrwhitt), οἷον μέν, ἤτοι, δέ (vel δή). ἢ φωνὴ ἄσημος
ἣ ἐκ πλειόνων μὲν φωνῶν μιᾶς σημαντικῶν (σημαντικὸν Α9) δὲ ποιεῖν πέφυκεν
μίαν σημαντικὴν φωνήν. ἄρθρον δ᾽ ἐστὶ φωνὴ ἄσημος, ἣ λόγου ἀρχὴν ἢ
τέλος ἢ διορισμὸν δηλοῖ, οἷον τὸ ἀμφί (φ. Κ. τ. AC: φημί Ald., Bekker) καὶ
τὸ περί καὶ τὰ ἄλλα. 8-10. ἢ. .. μέσου seclus. Reiz, Hermann.

14572 ©

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 3—8 69

audible sound. A semi-vowel, that which with such
contact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute,
that which with such contact has by itself no sound,
but joined to a vowel sound becomes audible, as G and
D. These are distinguished according to the form 4
assumed by the mouth, and the place where they are
produced; according as they are aspirated or smooth,
long or short; as they are acute, grave, or of an inter-
mediate tone; which inquiry belongs in detail to the
metrical treatises.

A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a5
mute and a vowel <or of a mute, a semi-vowel> and a
vowel: for GA without R is a syllable, as it also is
with R—GRA. But the’ investigation of these differ-
ences belongs also to metrical science.

A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which 6
neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds
into one significant sound; it may be placed at either
end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a non-significant
sound, which out of several sounds, each of them signi-
ficant, is capable of forming one significant sound—as
ἀμφί, περί, and the like. Or, a non-significant sound, 7
which marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence ;
such, however, that it cannot correctly stand by itself at
the beginning of a sentence,—as μέν, ἤτοι, δέ.

A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking 8
time, of which no part is in itself significant; for in
double or compound words we do not employ the
separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus
in Theodorus, ‘ god-given, the δῶρον or ‘ gift’ isnot in
itself significant.

70 XX. 8—XXI. τ. 1457 ἃ 11—34

, 7 507 > >
συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ ἄνευ χρόνου ἧς μέρος οὐδέν ἐστι καθ
Lal > ΓΑ ς \
αὑτὸ σημαντικόν" ἐν yap τοῖς διπλοῖς οὐ χρώμεθα ὡς Kat
a Lal , \ la)
αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ σημαῖνον, οἷον ἐν τῷ Θεοδώρῳ τὸ δῶρον
a \ \ \ \ /
ov σημαίνει. ῥῆμα δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ σημαντικὴ μετὰ χρὸ-
, CA Δι F<
vou ἧς οὐδὲν μέρος σημαίνει καθ᾽ avo, ὥσπερ Kal ἐπὶ τῶν
\ Xx / > / \
ὀνομάτων" τὸ μὲν yap ἄνθρωπος ἢ λευκόν οὐ σημαίνει TO
/ \ \ \
πότε, TO δὲ βαδίζει ἢ βεβάδικεν προσσημαίνει TO μὲν τὸν
/ n 3 \
παρόντα χρόνον τὸ δὲ Tov παρεληλυθότα. πτῶσις δ᾽ ἐστὶν
eS ὁ vA ec / e \ \ \ \ 4 x /
ὀνόματος ἢ ῥήματος ἡ μὲν TO KATA TO τούτου ἢ τούτῳ ση-
- a \ \ Xx -“
μαῖνον καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἡ δὲ κατὰ τὸ ἑνὶ ἢ πολλοῖς, οἷον
\ / ?
ἄνθρωποι ἢ ἄνθρωπος, ἡ δὲ κατὰ Te ὑποκριτικά, οἷον κατ
\ > a
ἐρώτησιν ἐπίταξιν" τὸ yap <ap > ἐβάδισεν ἢ βάδιζε πτῶσις
\ a \ / f \ \ \
ῥήματος κατὲ ταῦτα τὰ εἴδη ἐστίν. λόγος δὲ φωνὴ συνθετὴ
Aish lop ͵ 4... eb iy , J eer ΩΝ
σημαντικὴ ἧς ἔνια μέρη καθ᾽ αὑτὰ σημαίνει τι᾿ οὐ yap
Ὁ / > ε / x > ͵ὔ / e
ἅπας λόγος ἐκ ῥημάτων καὶ ὀνομάτων σύγκειται, οἷον ὁ
ἄν 3 4 ¢ / > ee / ΕΝ ς 7 3
τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁρισμός, ἀλλ᾽ ἐνδέχεται ἄνευ ῥημάτων εἶναι
/ 7 4 / cal
λόγον, μέρος μέντοι ἀεί TL σημαῖνον ἕξει, οἷον ἐν τῴ βαδί-
\ / fal ΔΎΣ
ζει Κλέων τὸ Κλέων. εἷς δέ ἐστι λόγος δυχῶς, ἢ γὰρ "ὁ ἕν

/ Xx oy τὰ / 7 ς» \ \
σημαίνων, ἢ ὁ ἐκ πλειόνων συνδέσμῳ, οἷον ἡ ᾿Ιλιὰς μὲν

/ ¢ \ a n
30 συνδέσμῳ εἷς, ὁ δὲ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τῷ Ev σημαίνειν.

XXI

/ \ a a
ὀνόματος δὲ εἴδη τὸ μὲν ἁπλοῦν, ἁπλοῦν δὲ λέγω ὃ μὴ
ἐκ j tov γῆ, τὸ δὲ διπλοῦν" τού
ἐκ 'σημαινόντων σύγκειται, οἷον γῆ, τὸ δὲ διπλοῦν" τούτου
δὲ \ \ > 7 \ 2 / \ > 5» fal
é τὸ μὲν ἐκ σημαίνοντος καὶ ἀσήμου (πλὴν οὐκ ἐν τῷ

/ /
ὀνόματι σημαίνοντος καὶ ἀσήμου), TO δὲ ἐκ σημαινόντων

17. ποτὲ Spengel. βαδίζει apogr.: βαδίζειν ΑΘ, 19. τὸ add. apogr.
22. Gp’ add. Vahlen. βάδιζε apogr.: ἐβάδιζεν Ac. 27. βαδίζει
apogr.: βαδίζειν A®: ““ἐν τῷ βαδίζειν, Κλέων ὁ Κλέωνος Susemihl
(praeeunte M. Schmidt). 28. τὸ Κλέων Bigg: ὁ Κλέων codd. 29.
συνδέσμῳ apogr.: συνδέσμων AS. 80. τῷ apogr.: τὸ Α9, 33. καὶ
ἀσήμου seclus. Ussing, commate posito post σημαίνοντος v. 34,
(cf. Arabs ‘non tamen indicans in nomine’) ; fort. recte.

XXI

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 9—XXI. 1 71

A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking 9
time, in which, as in the noun, no part is in itself signi-
ficant. For ‘man, or ‘white’ does not express the idea
of ‘when’; but ‘he walks, or ‘he has walked’ does
connote time, present or past.

Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and 10
expresses either the relation ‘of, ‘to, or the like; or
that of number, whether one or many, as ‘man’ or
‘men’; or the mode of address—a question, it may be,
or a command. ‘Did he go?’ and ‘go’ are verbal
inflexions of this kind.

A Sentence or Phrase is a composite sound, some of 11
whose parts are in themselves significant; for every such
combination of words is not composed of verbs and nouns
—the definition of man, for example—but it may dis-
pense with the verb. Still it will always have some
significant part, as the word ‘Cleon’ in ‘Cleon walks.’
A sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways,— 12
either as signifying one thing, or as consisting of several
parts linked together. Thus the Iliad is one by the
linking together of parts, the definition of man by the
unity of the thing signified.]

Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By
simple I mean those composed of non-significant elements,
such as γῆ. By double or compound, those composed
either of a significant and non-significant element
(though within the whole word this distinction dis-
appears), or of elements that are both significant. A
word may likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in .
form, as are most magniloquent compounds, such as
Hermo-caico-xanthus.

72 XXI. 1—6. 1457 a 35—1457 Ὁ 22

a cal \
35 σύγκειται. εἴη δ᾽ ἂν καὶ τριπλοῦν καὶ τετραπλοῦν ὄνομα καὶ
an an ¢ oo
πολλαπλοῦν, οἷον τὰ πολλὰ τῶν μεγαλείων, οἷον “Eppoxai-
a Ἃ
1457p κόξανθος. ἅπαν δὲ ὄνομά ἐστιν ἢ κύριον ἢ γλῶττα ἢ μετα- 2
\ Xx / Xx / x 3 / ; pe 3
φορὰ ἢ κόσμος ἢ πεποιημένον ἢ ἐπεκτεταμένον ἢ ὑφῃρη-
μένον ἢ ἐξηλλαγμένον. λέγω δὲ κύριον μὲν ᾧ χρῶνται 8
- Ν “
ἕκαστοι, γλῶτταν δὲ ᾧ ἕτεροι, ὥστε φανερὸν ὅτι καὶ γχῶτ-

Ν 7 9 \ \ > AOR \ a > a "k
ταν Kab KupLov elvat δυνατὸν TO AUTO, μὴ τοις AUTOLS δέ

/ an fal
TO yap σίγυνον Κυπρίοις μὲν κύριον, ἡμῖν δὲ γλῶττα. με- 4
4 / \ xX \ nr
ταφορὰ δέ ἐστιν ὀνόματος ἀλλοτρίου ἐπιφορὰ ἢ ἀπὸ TOD
/ > _® 3 x 3 \ an by, > eS ἈΝ / Δ» Ν lol ΕΣ
γένους ἐπὶ εἶδος ἢ ἀπὸ τοῦ εἴδους ἐπὶ τὸ γένος ἢ ἀπὸ TOD εἴ-
Ν
Sous ἐπὶ εἶδος ἢ κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον. λέγω δὲ ἀπὸ γένους μὲν 5
ΦΌΌΥΑΙ 75 e ς rn δέ [2 δ᾽ [τ .?? \ \ e -“ >
10 ἐπὶ εἶδος, οἷον “νηῦς δέ μοι ἥδ᾽ ἕστηκεν" τὸ γὰρ ὁρμεῖν ἐστιν
75»
ἑστάναι τι. ἀπ᾽ εἴδους δὲ ἐπὶ γένος, ““ἦ δὴ μυρί᾽ ᾿Οδυσσεὺς
Ν / rn
ἐσθλὰ ἔοργεν"" τὸ yap μυρίον πολύ <Ti> ἐστιν, ᾧ νῦν ἀντὶ
τοῦ πολλοῦ κέχρηται. ἀπ᾽ εἴδους δὲ ἐπὶ εἶδος οἷον “χαλκῷ
» \ \ > 4 » \ ce \ > / an > rn
ἀπὸ ψυχὴν aptcas καὶ “ ταμὼν ἀτειρέι χαλκῷ. ἐνταῦθα
\ / nr Ν \ a /
15 γὰρ TO μὲν ἀρύσαι ταμεῖν, TO δὲ ταμεῖν ἀρύσαι εἴρηκεν"
Ν a , Ν
ἄμφω γὰρ ἀφελεῖν τί ἐστιν. τὸ δὲ ἀνάλογον λέγω, ὅταν 6
ς , \ rn Ν
ὁμοίως ἔχῃ τὸ δεύτερον πρὸς τὸ πρῶτον καὶ τὸ τέταρτον
Ν Ν / ὃ 5 ΠῚ \ > \ nr ὃ , Ν / x
πρὸς τὸ τρίτον" ἐρεῖ yap ἀντὶ τοῦ δευτέρου τὸ τέταρτον ἢ
> \ fa! 7 Ν 7 | a a / > >
ἀντὶ τοῦ τετάρτου τὸ δεύτερον, καὶ ἐνίοτε προστιθέασιν ἀνθ᾽
/ \ [2 ε
20 οὗ λέγει πρὸς ὅ ἐστι. λέγω δὲ οἷον ὁμοίως ἔχει φιάλη πρὸς
/ \ a
Διόνυσον καὶ ἀσπὶς πρὸς " Apn’ ἐρεῖ τοίνυν τὴν φιάλην ἀσπίδα

Διονύσου καὶ τὴν ἀσπίδα φιάλην "Άρεως. ἢ ὃ γῆρας πρὸς

36. μεγαλείων ὡς Winstanley: μεγαλείων οἷον Bekker ed. 3: μεγαλείων ὧν ©
Vahlen: μεγαλιωτῶν codd. 1457 Ὁ 2. ἀφῃρημένον Spengel (cf. 1458
8 1). 8. 7d om. apogr. 12. τί add. Twining.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 2—6 73

1457p Every word is common or proper, strange, meta- 2
phorical, ornamental, newly-coined, extended, contracted,
or altered.

By a common or proper word I mean one which is 3
in general use among a people; by a strange word, one
which is in use in another country. Plainly, therefore,
the same word may be at once strange and common, but
not in relation to the same people. The word ciyuvor,
‘lance, is to the Cyprians a common word but to us
a strange one.

Metaphor is the application of an alien name by 4
transference either from genus to species, or from species
to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is,
proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: ‘There 5
stands my ship’; for to be at anchor is a species of
standing. From species to genus, as: ‘Verily ten
thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought’; for ten
thousand is a species of large number, and is here used
for a large number generally. From species to species,
as: ‘Drew away the life with the blade of bronze, and
‘Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze.’
Here ἀρύσαι, ‘to draw away, is used for ταμεῖν, ‘to
cleave, and rapety again for dptcar,—each being a species
of taking away. Analogy or proportion is when the 6
second term is to the first as the fourth to the third.
We may then use the fourth for the second, or the
second for the fourth. Sometimes too we qualify the
metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word
is relative. Thus the cup is to Dionysus as the shield
to Ares. The cup may, therefore, be called ‘the shield
of Dionysus, and the shield ‘the cup of Ares.’ Or, again,

74 XXI. 6—12. 1457 Ὁ 23—1458 a τὸ

A tal ΄ a
βίον, καὶ ἑσπέρα πρὸς ἡμέραν᾽ ἐρεῖ τοίνυν τὴν ἑσπέραν γῆ-

pas ἡμέρας καὶ τὸ γῆρας ἑσπέραν βίου ἤ, ὥσπερ Ἐ)μμπεδοκλῆς,

,ὔ n > /
25 δυσμὰς βίου. ἐνίοις δ᾽ οὐκ ἔστιν ὄνομα κείμενον τῶν ἀνά- 7

35
1458 a

> \ ἈΝ
λογον, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲν ἧττον ὁμοίως λεχθήσεται" οἷον τὸ τὸν
, n
καρπὸν μὲν ἀφιέναι σπείρειν, TO δὲ τὴν φλόγα ἀπὸ τοῦ
ἔχ 7 eae A os > ε / 4 n \ \ 4 \
ἡλίου ἀνώνυμον" GAN ὁμοίως ἔχει τοῦτο πρὸς TOV ἥλιον καὶ
Ν / Ν \ / \ ; “cc 7 /
τὸσπείρειν πρὸς TOV καρπόν, διὸ εἴρηται “σπείρων θεοκτίσταν
/ nr nm cal Lol
φλόγα." ἔστι δὲ τῷ τρόπῳ τούτῳ τῆς μεταφορᾶς χρῆσθαι
/ a a
καὶ ἄλλως, προσαγορεύσαντα TO ἀλλότριον ἀποφῆσαι TOV
οἰκείων τι, οἷον εἰ τὴν ἀσπίδα εἴποι φιάλην μὴ "Ἄρεως ἀλλ᾽
ἄοινον. πεποιημένον δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὃ ὅλως μὴ καλούμενον ὑπὸ τινῶν
te ’ὔ ε / a \ 54 39 n
αὐτὸς τίθεται ὁ ποιητής, δοκεῖ yap ἔνια εἶναι τοιαῦτα, οἷον
τὰ κέρατα ἐρνύγας καὶ τὸν ἱερέα ἀρητῆρα. ἐπεκτεταμένον
ΡΝ ~ 32 / Ν \ 2\ / /
δέ ἐστιν ἢ ἀφῃρημένον τὸ μὲν ἐὰν φωνήεντι μακροτέρῳ κε-
χρημένον ἢ τοῦ οἰκείου ἢ συλλαβῇ ἐμβεβλημένῃ, τὸ δὲ ἂν
» / > > n > / \ Ν ,
ἀφηρημένον τι ἢ αὐτοῦ, ἐπεκτεταμένον μὲν οἷον τὸ πόλεως
πόληος καὶ τὸ Πηλέος -Πηλῆος καὶ τὸ Πηλείδου-:- IIn-
ληιάδεω, ἀφῃρημένον δὲ οἷον τὸ κρῖ καὶ τὸ δῶ καὶ “ pia
37)
γίνεται ἀμφοτέρων oy. ἐξηλλαγμένον δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὅταν
n>? 7 Ν \ / \ \ “Ὁ Ν
τοῦ ὀνομαζομένου τὸ μὲν καταλείπῃ τὸ δὲ ποιῇ, οἷον τὸ
” rn /
“ δεξιτερὸν κατὰ μαζόν ᾿ ἀντὶ τοῦ δεξιόν.
» A \ a > /, \ Ἀ »” . Ἂν \ / \
[αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν ὀνομάτων τὰ μὲν ἄρρενα Ta δὲ θήλεα τὰ

\ ΕΟ ς Ν Ὁ A > \ Ἀ \
δὲ μεταξύ, ἄρρενα μὲν ὅσα τελευτᾷ εἰς τὸ Ν καὶ P καὶ > καὶ

24, ἡμέρας... . δυσμὰς} apogr.: ἡμέρας } ὥσπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς καὶ τὸ γῆρας ἑσπέραν
βίου ἢ δυσμὰς βίου AS Vahlen. 25. τῶν A°: τὸ apogr., Bekker. 29.

-“«-τὸν agiévra> τὸν κάρπον Castelvetro. 82. ἀλλ᾽ ἄοινον Vettori: ἄλλα
οἴνου codd. 1458 ἃ 1. κεχρημένος Hermann. 4, ἸΠηλῆος καὶ τὸ
Πηλείδου add. M. Schmidt. 6. ὄψ Vettori: ὀης ΑΘ (ἢ. 6. ὀπς vel

ὀΨ1:). 10. καὶ = apogr., Maggi: om. A°.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 6—12 75

as old age is to life, so is evening today. Evening may
therefore be called ‘the old age of the day,’ and old age,
‘the evening of life’ or, in the phrase of Empedocles,
‘life’s setting sun.’ In some cases one of the terms of 7
the proportion has no specific name; still, the metaphor
may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called
sowing: but the action of the sun in scattering his rays
is nameless. Still this action bears to the sun the same
relation that sowing does to him who scatters the grain.
Hence the expression of the poet, ‘sowing the god-
created light.’ There is another way in which this kind 8
of metaphor may be employed. We may apply an alien
term, and then deny οἵ that term one of its proper
attributes ; as if we were to call the shield, not ‘the cup
of Ares, but ‘the wineless cup.’

A newly-coined word is one which has never yet 9
been in use, but is invented by the poet himself. Some
such words there appear to be: as ἐρνύγες, ‘sprouters,
for κέρατα, ‘horns, and ἀρητήρ, ‘supplicator, for ἱερεύς,

‘ priest.’

1458a A word is extended when its own vowel is exchanged 10
for a longer one, or when a syllable is inserted. <A
word is contracted when some part of it is removed.
Instances of extension 818,---πόληος for πόλεως, Πηλῆος
for Πηλέος, and Πηληιάδεω for ΠΠηλείδου : of contrac-
tion,—x«pi, δῶ, and dy, as in pia γίνεται ἀμφοτέρων dy.

An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary 11
form is left unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in de&-.
Tepov κατὰ μαζόν, δεξιτερόν is for δεξιόν.

[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, 12
or neuter. Masculine are such as end in ν, p, s, or in

76 ΧΧΙ. 12—XXII. 3. 1458 a 11—33

» / \ f
ὅσα ἐκ τούτου σύγκειται, ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶν δύο, Ψ καὶ ἘΞ, θήλεα
an >
δὲ ὅσα ἐκ τῶν φωνηέντων εἴς τε TA ἀεὶ μακρά, οἷον εἰς H
a /
καὶ Q, καὶ τῶν ἐπεκτεινομένων eis A* ὥστε ἴσα συμβαίνει
Ν Ν
πλήθει εἰς ὅσα τὰ ἄρρενα καὶ τὰ θήλεα. τὸ γὰρ Ψ καὶ τὸ Ξ
fol A >
15 ταὐτά ἐστιν. εἰς δὲ ἄφωνον οὐδὲν ὄνομα τελευτᾷ, οὐδὲ εἰς
- / UA
φωνῆεν βραχύ. εἰς δὲ τὸ 1 τρία μόνον, μέλι κόμμι πέπερι.
\ a
eis δὲ τὸ T πέντε. τὰ δὲ μεταξὺ eis ταῦτα καὶ N καὶ >.]
\ a
XXIT λέξεως δὲ ἀρετὴ σαφῆ καὶ μὴ ταπεινὴν εἶναι. σα-
: ΄ \ 5 3 Ἐς n 7 > ΄ 2 \
φεστάτη μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ EK τῶν κυρίων ὀνομάτων, ἀλλὰ
ee aD / rn
20 ταπεινή. παράδειγμα δὲ ἡ Κλεοφῶντος ποίησις καὶ ἡ
Σθενέλου. σεμνὴ δὲ καὶ ἐξαλλάττουσα τὸ ἰδιωτικὸν ἡ τοῖς
ξενικοῖς κεχρημένη. ἕενικὸν δὲ λέγω γλῶτταν καὶ μετα-
\ ἈΦ / \ a \ Ἂν 4 4 > 2
φορὰν καὶ ἐπέκτασιν καὶ πᾶν TO Tapa TO κύριον. ἀλλ᾽ av 2
[2 “ “ 7 ΕΥ̓ Ν Ψ Xx
Tis ἅμα ἅπαντα τοιαῦτα ποιήσῃ, ἢ αἴνυγμα ἔσται ἢ βαρβα-
ott n \
25 pioyos’ ἂν μὲν οὖν ἐκ μεταφορῶν, αἴνιγμα, ἐὰν δὲ ἐκ
a Fe led , Ἀπ 297 “ ἈΝ ΤᾺ
γλωττῶν, βαρβαρισμός" αἰνίγματός τε γὰρ ἰδέα αὕτη ἐστί,
τὸ λέγοντα ὑπάρχοντα ἀδύνατα συνάψαι. κατὰ μὲν οὖν
τὴν τῶν «ἄλλων:- ὀνομάτων σύνθεσιν οὐχ οἷόν τε τοῦτο
fol > 4
ποιῆσαι, κατὰ δὲ THY μεταφορὰν ἐνδέχεται, οἷον “ἄνδρ᾽ εἶδον
\ \ pee EY / 3» Ν \ a > a
30 πυρὶ χαλκὸν ἐπ᾽ ἀνέρι κολλήσαντα,᾽ Kal τὰ τοιαῦτα. ἐκ TOV
n / a an UA \
γλωττῶν βαρβαρισμός. δεῖ dpa κεκρᾶσθαί πως τούτοις" τὸ 3
\ \ V2 Ν 7 \ / e “Ὁ
μὲν γὰρ μὴ ἰδιωτικὸν ποιήσει μηδὲ ταπεινόν, οἷον ἡ γλῶττα

/
καὶ ἡ μεταφορὰ καὶ ὁ κόσμος Kal τἄλλα τὰ εἰρημένα

14. πλήθει apogr. : πλήθη AS. 15. ante ταὐτὰ add. τῷ = Tyrwhitt.
17. post πέντε add. apogr. τὸ πῶυ τὸ νᾶπυ τὸ γόνυ τὸ δόρυ τὸ ἄστυ. 24.
τις ἅπαντα vel τις ἅμα ἅπαντα apogr.: ἂν ἅπαντα ΑΞ“, ποιήσῃ apogr. :
ποιῆσαι AS, 28, ἄλλων coni. Margoliouth, collato Arabe ‘reliqua
nomina’: κυρίων Tyrwhitt. 31. κεκρᾶσθαι Maggi 6 cod. Lampridii
ef. Arabs ‘si miscentur haec’: κεκρίσθαι ceteri codd.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 12—XXII. 3 77

some letter compounded with s,—these being two, w
and ξ. Feminine, such as end in vowels that are always
long, as ἡ and w, and—of vowels that admit of lengthen-
ing—those in a. Thus the number of letters in which
nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for ψ'
and ξ are equivalent to endings in 5s. No noun ends in
a mute or a vowel short by nature. Three only end in ε,
---μέλι, κόμμι, πέπερι: five end in v. Neuter nouns end
in these two latter vowels; also in ν and ¢.]

XXII The perfection of style is to be clear without being
mean. The style which uses only common or proper words |
is in the highest degree clear; at the same time it is
mean :—witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus.
That diction, on the other hand, is lofty and raised above
the commonplace which employs unusual words. By
unusual, [ mean words rare or strange, metaphorical, ex-
tended,—anything, in short, that differs from the normal
idiom. Yet a style wholly composed of such words is 2
either a riddle or a jargon; a riddle, if it consists of
metaphors; a jargon, if it consists of rare or strange
words. For the essence of a riddle is to express true
facts under impossible combinations. Now this cannot
be done by any arrangement of ordinary words, but by
the use of metaphor it can. Such is the riddle:— A
man I saw who on another man had glued the bronze
by aid of fire, and others of the same kind. A diction
that is made up of rare or strange terms is a jargon. <A 3
certain infusion, therefore, of these elements is necessary
to style; for the rare or strange word, the metaphorical,
the ornamental, and the other kinds above mentioned,
will raise it above the commonplace and mean, while the

σ'

78 XXII. 4—7. 1458 ἃ 34—1458 Ὁ 21

εἴδη, TO δὲ κύριον THY σαφήνειαν. οὐκ ἐλάχιστον δὲ μέρος 4

a \ \ > \
συμβάλλεται εἰς TO σαφὲς τῆς λέξεως Kal μὴ ἰδιωτικὸν
lal > /
ai ἐπεκτάσεις καὶ ἀποκοπαὶ καὶ ἐξαλλαγαὶ τῶν ὀνομά-
» x \ 4 \
Tov: διὰ μὲν yap TO ἄλλως ἔχειν ἢ ὡς TO κύριον, παρὰ
Ν > \ / \ \ ἰδ \ / ὃ \ δὲ \

TO εἰωθὸς γιγνόμενον, TO μὴ ἰδιωτικὸν ποιήσει, διὰ δὲ TO KoL-
val nan? , ἈΝ \. ἢν Ψ > > n ,
νωνεῖν Tod εἰωθότος τὸ σαφὲς ἔσται. ὥστε οὐκ ὀρθῶς ψέγου-

ς» a a tA / al /
σιν οἱ ἐπιτιμῶντες TO τοιούτῳ τρόπῳ τῆς διαλέκτου Kal δια-
rn \ "4 > 7 ε > - ς
κωμῳδοῦντες τὸν ποιητήν, οἷον Ἐϊκλείδης ὁ ἀρχαῖος, ὡς
π- / ς / ΄
ῥάδιον ποιεῖν, εἴ τις δώσει ἐκτείνειν ἐφ᾽ ὁπόσον βούλεται,
fal 7 9.
ἰαμβοποιήσας ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ λέξει. ““Ἐπιχάρην εἶδον Mapa-
n > > bY \ 7
θῶνάδε βαδίζοντα," καὶ “οὐκ ἄν γ᾽ ἐράμενος τὸν ἐκείνου ἐλ-
/ 3» Ν \ 5 / / , Ψ a
λέβορον.᾽ τὸ μὲν οὖν φαίνεσθαί πως χρώμενον τούτῳ τῷ
/ lal Ν \ / \ ς 7 > a
τρόπῳ γελοῖον, TO δὲ μέτρον κοινὸν ἁπάντων ἐστὶ τῶν με-
ρῶν’ καὶ γὰρ μεταφοραῖς καὶ γλώτταις καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις
yy /, > an > / ; a. \ lal \
εἴδεσι χρώμενος ἀπρεπῶς καὶ ἐπίτηδες ἐπὶ τὰ γελοῖα τὸ
ΩΝ Τ > A \ ee / “ ΄Ζ
αὐτὸ ἂν ἀπεργάσαιτο. τὸ δὲ ἁρμόττον ὅσον διαφέρει ἐπὶ
a > n / > / n 4 > 4
τῶν ἐπῶν θεωρείσθω ἐντιθεμένων τῶν <KUpimy> ὀνομάτων
> \ / pas eae. “Ὁ , \ a ee es n
εἰς TO μέτρον. καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γλώττης δὲ Kal ἐπὶ τῶν peTa-
φορῶν καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἰδεῶν μετατιθεὶς ἄν τις τὰ
/ - Bee ἃ My [ἢ > an / \ >.
κύρια ὀνόματα κατίδοι ὅτι ἀληθῆ λέγομεν" οἷον τὸ αὐτὸ
/ tal ,
ποιήσαντος ἰαμβεῖον Αἰσχύλου καὶ Ἐὐριπίδου, ἕν δὲ μόνον

” / > Ν / > / lal \
ὄνομα μεταθέντος, ἀντὶ [κυρίου] εἰωθότος γλῶτταν, τὸ

1458 b 1. συμβάλλεται A: συμβάλλονται apogr. 9. Ἐπιχάρην
Bursian praeeunte Tyrwhitt (Ἠπιχάρην) : fre χάριν AS. 10.
ἄν γ᾽ épdwevos apogr.: ἂν γεράμενος Α΄ : γευσάμενος Tyrwhitt. 11.
πως] ἀπρεπῶς Twining: πάντως Hermann. 15. ἁρμόττον apogr. :

ἁρμόττοντος Ae, 16. ἐπῶν] ἐπεκτάσεων Tyrwhitt. κυρίων coni. Vahlen.

21. μεταθέντος Ald.: μετατιθέντος ΑΞ, κυρίου secludendum coni. Vahlen :
κυρίου <xal> εἰωθότος Heinsius.

ὄ

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 4—7 79

use of proper words will make it perspicuous. But 4
1458» nothing contributes more to produce a clearness of
diction that is remote from commonness than the exten-
sion, contraction, and alteration of words. For by
deviating in exceptional cases from the normal idiom,
the language will gain distinction; while, at the same
time, the partial conformity with usage will give per-, ,
spicuity. The critics, therefore, are in error who censure 5
these licenses of speech, and hold the author up to
ridicule. Thus Eucleides, the elder, declared that it
would be an easy matter to be a poet if you might
lengthen syllables at will. His travesty consisted in the
mere form of the verse, for example:
Ἐπιχάρην εἶδον Μαραθῶνάδε βαδίζοντα,
or,
' οὐκ ἄν γ᾽ ἐράμενος τὸν ἐκείνου ἐλλέβορον.
To employ such lengthening at all obtrusively is gro- 6
tesque. Here, as in all modes of poetic diction, there
must be moderation. Even metaphors, rare or strange
words, or any similar forms of speech, would produce
the like effect if used without propriety, and with the
express purpose of being ludicrous. How great a differ- 7
ence is made by the appropriate use of lengthening, may
be seen in Epic poetry by the insertion of ordinary forms
in the verse. So, again, if we take a rare or strange
word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression,
and replace it by the common or proper word, the truth
of our observation will be manifest. For example,
Aeschylus and Euripides each composed the same iambic ᾿
line. But the alteration of a single word by Euripides,
who employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary

80 XXII. 7—10. 1458 Ὁ 22—1459 ἃ 9

> / ? / Ν \
μὲν φαίνεται καλὸν τὸ δ᾽ εὐτελές. Αἰσχύλος μὲν yap
ἐν τῷ Φιλοκτήτῃ ἐποίησε
ἐν τῷ Φιλοκτήτῃ ἐποίησ:
/ /
φαγέδαινα <8> ἥ μου σάρκας ἐσθίει ποδός,
n / \
25 ὁ δὲ ἀντὶ τοῦ ἐσθίει τὸ θοινᾶται μετέθηκεν. καὶ
Ν /
νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος Te Kal οὐτιδανὸς Kal ἀεικής,ἷ
7 \
εἴ τις λέγοι TA κύρια μετατιθεὶς
ον δι σν, ὍΝ / \ > \ > ὃ 4».
νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν μικρός τε καὶ ἀσθενικὸς καὶ ἀειδής
Ν
καὶ
/ > 2 , θ Ν 5. 7 7 2
30 δίφρον [τ᾽] ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς ὀλύγην τε τράπεζαν,
/ \ \ / /
δίφρον μοχθηρὸν καταθεὶς μικράν τε τράπεζαν.
/ /
καὶ τὸ “ἠιόνες Boowaw”® ἠιόνες κράζουσιν. ἔτι δὲ ᾿Αριφρά-
\ \ 2 ᾽ὃ “ ἃ ὃ Ν x by > fal
Sns τοὺς τρωγῳδοὺς ἐκωμῴδει, ὅτι ἃ οὐδεὶς ἂν εἴποι ἐν TH
“ Ν BA sa \
διαλέκτῳ τούτοις χρῶνται, οἷον τὸ δωμάτων ἄπο ἀλλὰ μὴ
/ \ /
35 ἀπὸ δωμάτων, καὶ τὸ σέθεν Kal τὸ ἐγὼ δέ νιν, Kal τὸ
1459 ᾿Αχιλλέως πέρι ἀλλὰ μὴ περὶ ᾿Αχιλλέως, καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα
fa) \ \ a / a \ \
τοιαῦτα. Sia yap TO μὴ εἶναι ἐν τοῖς κυρίοις ποιεῖ TO μὴ
ἐδ \ 3 a 7 [4 \ a ἀπ fee δὲ ‘A
ἰδιωτικὸν ἐν τῇ λέξει ἅπαντα τὰ τοιαῦτα᾽ ἐκεῖνος δὲ τοῦτο
> / 4 δὲ / \ ‘Ne 4 lal > / /
ἠγνόει. ἔστιν δὲ μέγα μὲν TO ἑκάστῳ τῶν εἰρημένων πρεπόν-

τως χρῆσθαι, καὶ διπλοῖς ὀνόμασι καὶ γλώτταις, πολὺ δὲ

/ a >

μέγιστον TO μεταφορικὸν εἶναι. μόνον γὰρ τοῦτο οὔτε παρ
a / al ἐς \

ἄλλου ἔστι λαβεῖν edpvias τε σημεῖόν éoTL’ TO yap εὖ

/ \ \o lal > al . es / \

μεταφέρειν τὸ τὸ ὅμοιον θεωρεῖν ἐστιν. τῶν δ᾽ ὀνομάτων τὰ

μὲν διπλᾶ μάλιστα ἁρμόττει τοῖς διθυράμβοις, αἱ δὲ γλῶτ-

1 Odyss. ix. 515, νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος τε καὶ οὐτιδανὸς καὶ ἄκικυς.
2 Odyss. xx. 259, δίφρον ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς ὀλίγην τε τράπεζαν.
5. Tliad xvii. 265.

24. δ᾽ (vel 7’) add. Ritter. φαγέδαιν᾽ det Nauck. 26. ἀεικής Cas-

telvetro (var. lec. Odyss. 1. ¢.), Arabs ‘ut non conveniat’: ἀειδής
codd. : ἄκικυς Odyss. 1. ¢. 80. τ᾽ ἀεικέλιον codd. : τ᾽ αἰκέλιον Vahlen :
τε seclus. Susemihl ed. 1. 89, εἴποι apogr.: elm. AS. 1459

8, 4. τὸ apogr. : τῶι AS.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 7—10 81

one, makes one verse appear beautiful and the other
trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes says:
φαγέδαινα «δ᾽: ἥ μου σάρκας ἐσθίει ποδός"

Euripides substitutes θοινᾶται ‘feasts on’ for ἐσθίει
‘feeds on.’ Again, in the line,

νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος Te Kal οὐτιδανὸς Kal ἀεικής,
the difference will be felt if we substitute the common
words,

νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν μικρός τε καὶ ἀσθενικὸς καὶ ἀειδής.
Or, if for the line,

δίφρον [τ᾽] ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς ὀλίγην τε τράπεζαν,
we read,

is μοχθηρὸν καταθεὶς μικράν τε τράπεζαν.
Or, for ἠιόνες βοόωσιν, ἠιόνες κράζουσιν.

Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using 8
phrases which no one would employ in ordinary speech :
for example, δωμάτων ἄπο instead of ἀπὸ δωμάτων,

1496 σέθεν, ἐγὼ δέ νιν, “AxirAréws πέρι instead of περὶ
᾿Αχιλλέως, and the like. It is precisely because such
phrases are not part of the common idiom that they
give distinction to the style. This, however, he failed
to see.

It is a great matter to observe propriety in these 9

several modes of expression—compound words, rare or
strange words, and so forth. But the greatest thing by
far is to have a genius for metaphor. This alone cannot
be had from another; it is the mark of a gifted nature,
—for to make good metaphors implies an eye for
resemblances. :
Of the various kinds of words, the compound are 10
best adapted to dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry,
G

82 XXII. ro—XXIIL. 3. 1459 a 10—33

Lal ς a ε \ \ a > / >

10 Tat τοῖς ἡρωικοῖς, at δὲ μεταφοραὶ τοῖς ἰαμβείοις. καὶ ἐν

\ -“ lal 7 -“

μὲν τοῖς ἡρωικοῖς ἅπαντα χρήσιμα τὰ εἰρημένα, ἐν δὲ τοῖς

ἰαμβείοις διὰ τὸ ὅτε μάλιστα λέξιν μιμεῖσθαι ταῦτα ap-

/ nr > / “ ΕΝ > “ / /

μόττει TOV ὀνομάτων ὅσοις κἂν ἐν [ὅσοις] λόγοις τις χρή-
av a a +. ey \ \ pel

caito’ ἔστι δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα τὸ κύριον Kal μεταφορὰ καὶ κόσμος.

15. περὶ μὲν οὖν τραγῳδίας καὶ τῆς ἐν τῷ πράττειν μιμή-

σεως ἔστω ἡμῖν ἱκανὰ τὰ εἰρημένα.

ΧΧΙΠ περὶ δὲ τῆς διηγηματικῆς καὶ ἑν -«ἣ-- μέτρῳ μιμητικῆς,
Ὁ n \ if. / 3 a , /
ὅτι δεῖ τοὺς μύθους καθάπερ ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις συνεστάναι
ὃ Ν \ / a ὅλ, \ / »,

ραματικοὺς καὶ περὶ μίαν πρᾶξιν ὅλην καὶ τελείαν, ἔχου-
20 σαν ἀρχὴν καὶ μέσα καὶ τέλος, ἵν᾽ ὥσπερ EGov ev ὅλον
lal \ > / 75) / n Ἂ \ 455€ / e / \
ποιῇ τὴν οἰκείαν ἡδονήν, δῆλον" Kal μὴ ὁμοίας ἱστορίας τὰς
7 > > > / > \ lal / -“
συνήθεις εἶναι, ἐν αἷς ἀνάγκη οὐχὶ μιᾶς πράξεως ποιεῖσθαι
> Ν /
δήλωσιν ἀλλ᾽ ἑνὸς χρόνου, ὅσα ἐν τούτῳ συνέβη περὶ ἕνα
ἢ πλείους, ὧν ἕκαστον ὡς ἔτυχεν ἔχει πρὸς ἄλληλα. ὥσπερ 3
/ al
25 yap κατὰ τοὺς αὐτοὺς χρόνους ἥ τ᾽ ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ἐγένετο
ναυμαχία καὶ ἡ ἐν Σικελίᾳ Καρχηδονίων μάχη οὐδὲν
\ \ \ a Cal
πρὸς TO αὐτὸ συντείνουσαι τέλος, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐφεξῆς
/
χρόνοις ἐνίοτε γίνεται θάτερον μετὰ θάτερον, ἐξ ὧν ν
οὐδὲν γίνεται τέλος. σχεδὸν δὲ οἱ πολλοὶ τῶν ποιητῶν τοῦτο
a / 4
30 δρῶσι. διό, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν ἤδη, Kal ταύτῃ θεσπέσιος- ἂν 3
/ a Ν \ ΜΝ' a Ν ἈΝ /
φανείη “Ὅμηρος παρὰ τοὺς ἄλλους, τῷ μηδὲ τὸν πόλεμον
, " ᾿ \ uty > n a. ¢. ᾿
καίπερ ἔχοντα ἀρχὴν καὶ τέλος ἐπιχειρῆσαι ποιεῖν ὅλον
λίαν γὰρ ἂν μέγας καὶ οὐκ εὐσύνοπτος ἔμελλεν ἔσεσθαι,

18. κἂν Harles: καὶ codd. ὅσοις om. Ald. 17. ἑνὶ (vel ἐν ἑνὶ) μέτρῳ
conieci (cf. 1449 Ὁ 11, 1459 Ὁ 33): ἐν ἑξαμέτρῳ Heinsius: ἐν μέτρῳ codd.
18. συνεστάναι coni. Vahlen: συνιστάναι codd. 21. ἱστορίας τὰς συνήθεις
codd. : ἱστορίαις τὰς cvvbéces-Dacier, fort. recte. 26. ναυμαχία apogr. :
vatpaxos ΑΞ. 28. μετὰ θάτερον Hermann: μετὰ θατέρου codd. 31.
τῷ apogr. : τὸ AS, 33. μέγα (rec. corr. μέγας)... εὐσύνοπτος. ..

μετριάζοντα A°: μέγα. .. εὐσύνοπτον. . . μετρίαζον posito commate post
ἔσεσθαι Bursian.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. ro—XXIII. 3 83

metaphors to iambic. In heroic poetry, indeed, all
these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse,
which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the
most appropriate words are those which belong to conver-
sational idiom. These are,—the common or proper, the
metaphorical, the ornamental.

Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of
action, this may suffice.

XXIII = As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in
form and employs a single metre, the plot manifestly
ought to be constructed on dramatic principles. It
should have for its subject a single action, whole and
complete, with a beginning, a middle, and an end.
It will thus resemble a living organism, and produce
its proper pleasure. Herein it differs from the ordinary
histories, which of necessity present not a single action,
but a single period, and all that happened within that
period to one person or to many, little connected together
as the events may be. For as the sea-fight at Salamis 2
and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily took
place at the same time, but did not tend to one result,
so in the sequence of events, one thing sometimes
follows another, and yet the two may not work up to
any common end. Such is the practice, we may say, of
most poets. Here again, then, as has been already 3
observed, the transcendent excellence of Homer is
manifest. He never attempts to make the whole war of
Troy the subject of his poem, though that war had a
beginning and an end. It would have been too vast a
theme, and not easily embraced in a single view. If,
again, he had kept it within moderate limits, it must

84 XXIII. 3—XXIV. 3. 1459 a 34—1459 Ὁ 20

a a lal
ἢ τῷ μεγέθει μετριάζοντα καταπεπλεγμένον τῇ ποικιλίᾳ.
35 νῦν δ᾽ ἕν μέρος ἀπολαβὼν ἐπεισοδίοις κέχρηται αὐτῶν
πολλοῖς, οἷον νεῶν καταλόγῳ καὶ ἄλλοις ἐπεισοδίοις, οἷς
διαλαμβάνει τὴν ποίησιν. οἱ δ᾽ ἄλλοι περὶ ἕνα ποιοῦσι
“ / \ / a n ¢
1459b Kal περὶ ἕνα χρόνον Kai μίαν πρᾶξιν πολυμερῆ, οἷον ὁ
τὰ Κύπρια ποιήσας καὶ τὴν μικρὰν ᾿Ιλιάδα. τοιγαροῦν ἐκ 4
μὲν Ἰλιάδος καὶ ᾿Οδυσσείας μία τραγῳδία ποιεῖται éxa-
τέρας ἢ δύο μόναι, ἐκ δὲ Κυπρίων πολλαὶ καὶ τῆς μι-
5 κρᾶς Ἰλιάδος [πλέον] ὀκτώ, οἷον ὅπλων κρίσις, Φιλοκτή-
της, Νεοπτόλεμος, Εὐρύπυλος, πτωχεία, Λάκαιναι, Ἰλίου
πέρσις καὶ ἀπόπλους [καὶ Σίνων καὶ Τρῳάδες].
XXIV ἔτι δὲ [ἔτι δὲ] τὰ εἴδη ταὐτὰ δεῖ ἔχειν τὴν ἐποποιίαν τῇ
τραγῳδίᾳ, ἢ γὰρ ἁπλῆν ἢ πεπλεγμένην ἢ ἠθικὴν ἢ παθη-
το τικήν' καὶ τὰ μέρη ἔξω μελοποιίας καὶ ὄψεως
ταὐτά" καὶ γὰρ περιπετειῶν δεῖ καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεων καὶ πα-
θημάτων. ἔτι τὰς διανοίας καὶ τὴν λέξιν ἔχειν καλῶς. οἷς 3
¢ “ 7 Ν an ε - \
ἅπασιν “Ὅμηρος κέχρηται καὶ πρῶτος καὶ ἱκανῶς. Kal yap
\ a 4 EN 4 / ς Ale. Ὁ νι a
καὶ τῶν ποιημάτων ἑκάτερον συνέστηκεν ἡ μὲν Tuas ἁπλοῦν
15 καὶ παθητικόν, ἡ δὲ ᾿Οδύσσεια πεπλεγμένον (ἀναγνώρισις
γὰρ διόλου) καὶ ἠθική. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις λέξει καὶ διανοίᾳ
πάντα ὑπερβέβληκεν. διαφέρει δὲ κατά τε τῆς συστάσεως 3
τὸ μῆκος ἡ ἐποποιία καὶ τὸ μέτρον. τοῦ μὲν οὖν μήκους ὅρος
ε δ τι φῦς , . o/ \ n a Walt: \
ἱκανὸς ὁ εἰρημένος" δύνασθαι yap δεῖ συνορᾶσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν

\ , 2 a rn /
20 καὶ TO τέλος. εἴη δ᾽ ἂν τοῦτο, εἰ τῶν μὲν ἀρχαίων ἐλάτ-

35. αὐτῶν] seclus. Christ: αὐτοῦ Heinsius. 36. οἷς apogr.: dls pr.
ΑΘ et ceteri codd. 1459 Ὁ 2. Κύπρια Tyrwhitt: κυπρικὰ A°. 5.
πλέον et καὶ Σίνων καὶ Tpwddes seclus. Hermann. 8. δεῖ apogr. : δὴ
AS. 13. ἱκανῶς apogr.: ἱκανὸς ΑΚ, 15. ἀναγνωρίσεις Christ.
16. δὲ apogr. : γὰρ AS. 17. πάντας Ald.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIII. 3—XXIV. 3 85

have been complicated by the variety of the incidents.
As it is, he selects a single portion, and admits many
episodes from the general story of the war—-such as
the Catalogue of the ships and others—thus diversifying
1459» the poem. All other poets take a single hero, a single
period, or an action single indeed, but with a multi-
plicity of parts. Thus did the author of the Cypria and
of the Little Iliad. For this reason the Iliad and the 4
Odyssey each furnish the subject of one tragedy, or, at
most, of two; while the Cypria furnishes many, and the
Little Iliad eight—-the Award of the Arms, the
Philoctetes, the Neoptolemus, Eurypylus, the Mendicant
᾿ Odysseus, the Laconian Women, the Fall of Ilium, the
Departure of the Fleet.

XXIV Again, Epic poetry must have the same species as
Tragedy: it must be simple, complicated, ‘ethical, or
‘pathetic.’ The parts also, with the exception of song
and scenery, are the same; for it requires reversals of
fortune, recognitions, and tragic incidents. Moreover,
the thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all 2
these respects Homer is our earliest and sufficient model.
Indeed each of his poems has a twofold character. The
Iliad is at once simple and ‘pathetic, and the Odyssey
complicated (for recognition scenes run through it), and
at the same time ‘ethical, Moreover, in diction and
thought he is unequalled.

Epie poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on3 |
which it is constructed, and in its metre. As regards
scale or length, we have already laid down an adequate
limit. We must be able to embrace in a single view the
beginning and the end; which might be done if the scale

86 XXIV. 3—7. 1459 Ὁ 21—1460a 5

e / 3 Ν \ \ a lal “
τους αἱ συστάσεις εἶεν, πρὸς δὲ τὸ πλῆθος τραγῳδιῶν τῶν
> / > / / / ” \ Ν Ν
εἰς μίαν ἀκρόασιν τιθεμένων παρήκοιεν. ἔχει δὲ πρὸς τὸ 4
> 7 θ \ , δ ’ e > , ἴδ ὃ \
ἐπεκτείνεσθαι τὸ μέγεθος πολύ τι ἡ ἐποποιία ἴδιον διὰ
Ν > Ν “Ὁ δί \ > δέ θ ov /
τὸ ἐν μὲν TH τραγῳδίᾳ μὴ ἐνδέχεσθαι ἅμα πραττόμενα
lal \ an an lal
25 πολλὰ μέρη μιμεῖσθαι ἀλλὰ TO ἐπὶ τῆς σκηνῆς καὶ TOV
΄ n / / > δὲ a 3 / 8 \ Ν ὃ /
ὑποκριτῶν μέρος μόνον" ἐν δὲ τῇ ἐποποιίᾳ διὰ τὸ διήγησιν
3 », \ / ef al / © 4? 2
εἶναι ἔστι πολλὰ μέρη ἅμα ποιεῖν περαινόμενα, VP ὧν
> / Ν » e n "A 4 ef ων Ὁ
οἰκείων ὄντων αὔξεται ὁ τοῦ ποιήματος ὄγκος. ὥστε τοῦτ
» \ 93> \ > / \ Ἂν / \
ἔχει TO ἀγαθὸν εἰς μεγαλοπρέπειαν Kal TO μεταβάλλειν τὸν
᾽ ΄ A: Ss a 2 s 2 ὔ - \ \
30 ἀκούοντα καὶ ἐπεισοδιοῦν ἀνομοίοις ἐπεισοδίοις" τὸ γὰρ 5
“ \ a > / tal \ / \ \
ὅμοιον ταχὺ πληροῦν ἐκπίπτειν ποιεῖ τὰς τραγῳδίας. TO δὲ
μέτρον τὸ ἡρωικὸν ἀπὸ τῆς πείρας ἥρμοκεν. εἰ γάρ τις ἐν
5», / \ / a a
ἄλλῳ τινὶ μέτρῳ διηγηματικὴν μίμησιν ποιοῖτο ἢ ἐν πολλοῖς,
Ν
ἀπρεπὲς ἂν φαίνοιτο" τὸ γὰρ ἡρωικὸν στασιμώτατον καὶ
35 ὀγκωδέστατον τῶν μέτρων ἐστίν (διὸ καὶ γχώττας καὶ μετα-
\ 9 ΄ ᾿ ἀν τ \ , ς
φορᾶς δέχεται μάλιστα" περιττὴ γὰρ καὶ <TavTy> ἡ διηγη-
\ , [al ” \ Ν - \ /
ματικὴ μίμησις TOV ἄλλων). TO δὲ ἰαμβεῖον Kal τετράμετρον
\ \ \ \ > / Ν \ / » ἊΨ, ἐπ
1460 a κινητικὰ καὶ τὸ μὲν ὀρχηστικόν, τὸ δὲ πρακτικόν. ἔτι δὲ ἀτο- 6
, > / > / Ψ Ν > \
πώτερον, EL μυιγνύοι τις αὐτά, ὥσπερ Χαιρήμων. διὸ οὐδεὶς
\ 7 5 Μ- , xX μ᾿ eo: 7 > ome -
μακρὰν σύστασιν ἐν ἄλλῳ πεποίηκεν ἢ τῷ ἡρῴφ, GAX ὧσ-
yy pe Ὁ , 7 ps / 2 Aa
περ εἴπομεν αὐτὴ ἡ φύσις διδάσκει TO ἁρμόττον αὐτῇ [δι-]

5 αἱρεῖσθαι. “Ὅμηρος δὲ ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἄξιος ἐπαινεῖσθαι καὶ Τ

86. καὶ codd.: καὶ ταύτῃ Twining: κἀν ταύταις Bywater. 37.
μίμησις apogr.: κίνησις A. 1460 al. κινητικὰ καὶ Vahlen: κινητικαὶ
AS, 2. μιγνύοι Ald.: μιγνύει apogr. : μηγνύη AS (fuit μη, et ἡ extre-
mum in litura corr.), cf. Arabs ‘si quis nesciret’ ἢ. e. ef μὴ γνοίη (Mar-
goliouth). 4, αὐτῇ apogr.: αὐτὴ ΑΚ. 5. αἱρεῖσθαι Bonitz :
διαιρεῖσθαι A,

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 3—6 87

of the whole were reduced as compared with that of the
ancient Epic, and the poem made equal in length to the
tragedies, taken collectively, which are exhibited at one
sitting.

Epic poetry has, however, a great—-a special— 4
capacity for enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the
reason. In Tragedy we cannot imitate several actions
carried on at one and the same time. We must
confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part
taken by the players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the
narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted
can be represented; and these, if relevant to the subject,
add mass and dignity to the poem. This particular
merit conduces to grandeur of effect; it also serves to
divert the mind of the hearer and to relieve the story
with varying episodes. For sameness of incident soon
produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail on the stage.

As for the metre, the heroic has proved its fitness by 5
the test of experience. If a narrative poem in any
other metre were now composed, it would be found
incongruous. For the heroic of all measures is the
stateliest and the most. imposing; and hence it most
readily admits rare words and metaphors; as indeed the
narrative mode of imitation is in this respect singular.
On the other hand, the iambic and the _ trochaic

1460 a tetrameter are stirring measures, the latter being suited
to dancing, the former to action. Still more absurd 6
would it be to mix together different metres, as was done by
Chaeremon. Hence no one has ever composed a poem on a
great scale in any other than heroic verse. Nature herself,
as we have said, teaches the choice of the proper measure.

88 XXIV. 7—10. 1460 a 6—26

rn - rad lal - > /
δὴ καὶ ὅτι μόνος τῶν ποιητῶν οὐκ ἀγνοεῖ ὃ δεῖ ποιεῖν αὐτόν.
a \ , , > Tet ty)
αὐτὸν yap δεῖ τὸν ποιητὴν ἐλάχιστα λέγειν" οὐ γάρ ἐστι
fel 5 Μ' \ \ > φῇ
κατὰ ταῦτα μιμητής. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἄλλοι αὐτοὶ μὲν δι᾽ ὅλου
n Wc. ἢ δ OX BRP
ἀγωνίζονται, μιμοῦνται δὲ ὀλέγα Kal ὀλυγάκις" ὁ δὲ ὀλίγα
Υ̓͂ x a A +
10 φροιμιασάμενος εὐθὺς εἰσάγει ἄνδρα ἢ γυναῖκα ἢ ἄλλο τι
[ἦθος] καὶ οὐδέν᾽ ἀήθη ἀλλ᾽ ἔχοντα ἤθη. δεῖ μὲν οὖν ἐν ταῖς 8
-“ / a / 3
τραγῳδίαις ποιεῖν TO θαυμαστόν, μᾶλλον δ᾽ ἐνδέχεται ἐν
- 4 A Ν
τῇ ἐποποιίᾳ τὸ ἄλογον, δι᾽ ὃ συμβαίνει μάλιστα τὸ θαυ-
͵ \ ‘ees > \ , rag Sey A }
μαστόν, διὰ TO μὴ ὁρᾶν εἰς τὸν πράττοντα᾽ ἐπεὶ τὰ περ
7 a a e
15 τὴν Exropos δίωξιν ἐπὶ σκηνῆς ὄντα γελοῖα ἂν φανείη, οἱ
\ ς “ \ > / e \ > / > \ al
μὲν ἑστῶτες καὶ ov διώκοντες, ὁ δὲ ἀνανεύων, ἐν δὲ τοῖς
4 al
ἔπεσιν λανθάνει. τὸ δὲ θαυμαστὸν ἡδύ" σημεῖον δέ' πάντες
/
yap προστιθέντες ἀπαγγέλλουσιν ὡς χαριζόμενοι. δεδίδαχεν 9
δὲ μάλιστα“Ομηρος καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ψευδῆ λέγειν ὡς δεῖ.
4 \ n / ΝΜ Ν 4 Ὁ
20 ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο παραλογισμός. οἴονται γὰρ ἄνθρωποι, ὅταν
λν \ Oo HX / / > \ of 4
τουδὶ ὄντος τοδὶ ἢ ἢ γινομένου γίνηται, εἰ τὸ ὕστερον ἔστιν,
/ “ “
καὶ τὸ πρότερον εἶναι ἢ γίνεσθαι" τοῦτο δέ ἐστι ψεῦδος. διὸ
δή, ἂν τὸ πρῶτον ψεῦδος, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ τούτου ὄντος ἀνάνγκ
bf}
εἶναι ἢ γενέσθαι [ἢ] προσθεῖναι" διὰ yap τὸ τοῦτο εἰδέναι
ἢ
fal \ Ἂς n
25 ἀληθὲς ὄν, παραλογίζεται ἡμῶν ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ TO πρῶτον ὡς

ὄν. παράδειγμα δὲ τούτου ἐκ τῶν Νίπτρων. προαιρεῖσθαί 10

11. ἦθος om. Reiz: legerat Arabs: εἶδος Bursian. οὐδέν᾽ ἀήθη apogr. : οὐδένα
ἤθη ΑΞ, ἔχοντα ἦθος coni. Christ. Post οὖν add. <xat ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσιν xal>

Christ, fort. recte. 13. ἄλογον Vettori: ἀνάλογον codd. δι᾽ ὃ Vettori :

διὸ codd. 14, ἐπεὶ τὰ apogr. : ἔπειτα τὰ AS 21. ἦ ἢ apogr. : ἣν AS,

rec. corr. ἢ. 22. γενέσθαι coni. Christ. 23. δή] de? Bonitz, Christ.

ἄλλου δὲ A®; ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ rec. corr. : ἄλλο δὲ cod. Robortelli, Bonitz: ἄλλο.
δ᾽ ὃ Vahlen: ἄλλο, ὃ Christ. 24. ἢ seclus. Bonitz, Christ: 7 Vahlen.

26. τούτου Robortelli: τοῦτο ΑΞ : τούτων apogr.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 7—9 89

Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit 7
of being the only poet who appreciates the part he
should take himself. The poet in his own person
should speak as little as possible; it is not this that
makes him an imitator. Other poets appear them-
selves upon the scene throughout, and imitate but little
and rarely. Homer, after a few prefatory words, at once
brings in a man, or woman, or other personage; none of
them wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with
a character of his own.

The element of the wonderful is admitted in Tragedy. 8
The irrational, on which the wonderful depends for its
chief effects, has wider scope in Epic poetry, because there
the person acting is not seen. ‘Thus, the pursuit of
Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage—the
Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and
Achilles beckoning to them to keep back. But in the
Epic poem the absurdity is unnoticed. Now the wonderful
is pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that, in
telling a story, every one adds something startling of his
own, knowing that his hearers like it, It is Homer 9
who has taught other poets the true art of fiction.
The secret of it lies in a fallacy. For, assuming that if
one thing is or becomes, a second is or becomes, men
imagine that, if the second is, the first likewise is or
becomes. But this is a false inference. Hence, where
the first thing is untrue, it is quite unnecessary, provided
the second be true, to add that the first is or has become.
For the mind, knowing the second to be true, falsely
infers the truth of the first. There is an example of this
in the book of the Odyssey containing the Bath Scene.

90 XXIV. 1o—XXV. 2. 1460 a 27—1460 Ὁ 11

/ a Xx / e /
τε δεῖ ἀδύνατα εἰκότα μᾶλλον ἢ δυνατὰ ἀπίθανα" τούς τε
γ lal / \
λόγους μὴ συνίστασθαι ἐκ μερῶν ἀλόγων, ἀλλὰ μάλιστα
rn 4 “
μὲν μηδὲν ἔχειν ἄλογον, εἰ δὲ μή, ἔξω τοῦ μυθεύματος, ὥσ-
" ς > \ \
30 περ Οἰδίπους τὸ μὴ εἰδέναι πῶς ὁ Λάιος ἀπέθανεν, ἀλλὰ μὴ
Φ an / “ ΠΝ 7 e \ / > ΄
ἐν τῷ δράματι, ὥσπερ ἐν ᾿Ηλέκτρᾳ οἱ τὰ ἸΠύθια ἀπαγγέλλον-
a oe / \ .
τες, ἢ ἐν Μυσοῖς ὁ ἄφωνος ἐκ Τεγέας eis τὴν Μυσίαν ἥκων.
¢ nr n rn
ὥστε TO λέγειν ὅτι ἀνήρητο ἂν ὁ μῦθος γελοῖον" ἐξ ἀρχῆς
“ ,ὔ 2
yap ov δεῖ συνίστασθαι τοιούτους" ἂν δὲ θῇ καὶ φαίνηται
35 εὐλογωτέρως, ἐνδέχεσθαι καὶ ἄτοπον --ὄν:- " ἐπεὶ καὶ τὰ ἐν
Ὀδυσσείᾳ ἄλογα τὰ περὶ τὴν ἔκθεσιν ὡς οὐκ ἂν ἣν ἀνεκτὰ
“" fa \ A “ \
1460 δῆλον ἂν γένοιτο, εἰ αὐτὰ φαῦλος ποιητὴς ποιήσειε" νῦν δὲ
a a e \ / uA
τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀγαθοῖς ὁ ποιητὴς ἀφανίζει ἡδύνων TO ἄτοπον.
na a a a /
τῇ δὲ λέξει δεῖ διαπονεῖν ἐν τοῖς ἀργοῖς μέρεσιν καὶ μήτε 11
> a 7, ne κὰ ΄ \ , ea
ἠθικοῖς μήτε διανοητικοῖς᾽ ἀποκρύπτει yap πάλιν ἡ λίαν
7ὔ
5 λαμπρὰ λέξις τά τε ἤθη καὶ τὰς διανοίας.
‘ /
ΧΧΥ περὶ δὲ προβλημάτων Kal λύσεων, ex πόσων TE Kal
7ὔ, 5. ο 3 ΦῸΣ ἃ a / 7K / 5 \
ποίων εἰδῶν ἐστιν, ὧδ᾽ ἂν θεωροῦσιν γένοιτ᾽ ἂν φανερόν. ἐπεὶ
\ «
γάρ ἐστι μιμητὴς ὁ ποιητὴς ὡσπερανεὶ ζωγράφος ἤ τις ἄλλος
5 / > / al a ” \ > \ Ψ
εἰκονοποιός, ἀνάγκη μιμεῖσθαι τριῶν ὄντων τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἕν
eat 4 Xx \ 3 Ἂν x Φ», \ a x e
10 TL ἀεί, ἢ γὰρ ola ἦν ἢ ἔστιν, ἢ οἷά φασιν καὶ δοκεῖ, ἢ οἷα

a fal /
εἶναι δεῖ. ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐξαγγέλλεται λέξει <1) κυρίοις ὀνόμασιν:- 2

80. <é> Οἰδίπους Bywater. 35. ἀποδέχεσθαι apogr. ὄν addidi.
1460 Ὁ 1 ποιήσειε Heinsius: ποιήσει codd. : ἐποίησεν Spengel. 5. Te
apogr. : δὲ A® 7. ποίων εἰδῶν apogr. : ποίων ἂν εἰδῶν AS. 9. τὸν
ἀριθμὸν vel τῷ ἀριθμῷ ἀρορτ. : τῶν ἀριθμῶν Ae. 10. ἢ ofa apogr. :
οἷα A. 11. ἢ κυρίοις ὀνόμασιν coni. Vahlen. ,

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 1o—XXV. 1 91

Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable im-10 ~
possibilities to improbable possibilities. The tragic plot
must not consist of incidents which the reason rejects. ~
These incidents should, if possible, be excluded; or, at
least, they should be outside the action of the play.
Such, in the Oedipus, is the ignorance of the hero as to the
manner of Laius’ death. The irrational parts should not
be within the drama,—as in the Electra, the messenger’s
account of the Pythian games; or, in the Mysians, the
man who comes from Tegea to Mysia without speaking.
The plea that otherwise the plot would have been
ruined, is ridiculous. Such a plot should not in the first
instance be constructed. But once it has been framed
and an air of likelihood imparted to it, the absurdity
itself should be tolerated. Take the irrational incidents
connected with the landing on Ithaca in the Odyssey.
How intolerable they might have been would be

1460» apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject.
As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm with
which the poet invests it.

The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the 11
action, where there is no expression of character or
thought. On the other hand, character and thought
are merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant.

XXV With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions,
the number and nature of the sources from which they
may be drawn may be thus exhibited.

The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any
other artist, must of necessity imitate one of three
objects,—things as they were or are, things as they are
said or thought to be, or things as they ought to be.

92 XXYV. 2—6. 1460 Ὁ 12—33

Kal γλώτταις καὶ μεταφοραῖς" καὶ πολλὰ πάθη τῆς λέξεως
> / / a al cal ἈΝ \ / 3
ἐστί, δίδομεν γὰρ ταῦτα τοῖς ποιηταῖς. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις οὐχ 8
ἡ αὐτὴ ὀρθότης ἐστὶν τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ποιητικῆς οὐδὲ
ἄλλης τέχνης καὶ ποιητικῆς. αὐτῆς δὲ τῆς ποιητικῆς διττὴ
ἁμαρτία, ἡ μὲν γὰρ καθ᾽ αὑτήν, ἡ δὲ κατὰ συμβεβηκός. εἰ
Ν , : } / 0 \ 3 06 δὲ 5
μὲν γάρ -«τι-- προείλετο μιμήσασθαι «μὴ ὀρθῶς δὲ ἐμι-
/ ᾽ > / 7. A id ε ἄς » \ ὃ \
μήσατο Ov> ἀδυναμίαν, αὐτῆς ἡ ἁμαρτία" εἰ δὲ -«διὰ--
τὸ προελέσθαι μὴ ὀρθῶς, ἀλλὰ τὸν ἵππον --ἅμ᾽-- ἄμφω τὰ
δεξιὰ προβεβληκότα ἢ τὸ καθ᾽ ἑκάστην τέχνην ἁμάρτημα
οἷον τὸ κατ᾽ ἰατρικὴν ἢ ἄλλην τέχνην [ἢ ἀδύνατα πεποίηται)
e a > pe / “ al » Vee J / > lal
ὁποιανοῦν, ov καθ᾽ ἑαυτήν. ὥστε δεῖ τὰ ἐπιτιμήματα ἐν τοῖς
/ 2 / 2 a 4 a \ 5.
προβλήμασιν ἐκ τούτων ἐπισκοποῦντα λύειν. πρῶτον μὲν εἰ
πρὸς αὐτὴν τὴν τέχνην ἀδύνατα πεποίηται, ἡμάρτηται,
ἀλλ᾽ ὀρθῶς ἔχει, εἰ τυγχάνει τοῦ τέλους τοῦ αὑτῆς (τὸ γὰρ
}- ΕΙΣ > ov > 4, XK > \ x ©
τέλος εἴρηται), εἰ οὕτως ἐκπληκτικώτερον ἢ αὐτὸ ἢ ἄλλο
fal / / Ξε ad δί > / \
ποιεῖ μέρος. παράδειγμα ἡ ToD” Exropos δίωξις. εἰ μέντοι TO
τέλος ἢ μᾶλλον ἢ --μὴ-- ἧττον ἐνεδέχετο ὑπάρχειν καὶ κατὰ
\ \ 4 / € a > > ᾿ ὙΦΑ͂ ὃ a Ν
τὴν περὶ τούτων τέχνην, [ἡμαρτῆσθαι] οὐκ ὀρθῶς" δεῖ γὰρ
ΙΧ / an ¢ A 4 / > \
εἰ ἐνδέχεται ὅλως μηδαμῇ ἡμαρτῆσθαι. ἔτι ποτέρων ἐστὶ
τὸ ἁμάρτημα, τῶν κατὰ τὴν τέχνην ἢ κατ᾽ ἄλλο συμβεβη-
Kos ; ἔλαττον γὰρ εἰ μὴ ἤδει ὅτι ἔλαφος θήλεια κέρατα

οὐκ ἔχει ἢ εἰ ἀμιμήτως ἔγραψεν. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ἐὰν 6

17. τι δ 14]. μὴ ὀρθῶς... dv’ addidi: post μιμήσασθαι coni. Vahlen ὀρθῶς,
ἥμαρτε δ᾽ ἐν τῷ μιμήσασθαι δι΄. 18. εἰ apogr.: ἢ 45, διὰ add. Ueber-
weg. 19. ἅμ᾽ add. Vahlen. 21. ἢ ἀδύνατα πεποίηται seclus. Diintzer :
τέχνην ὁποιανοῦν [ἢ] ἀδύνατα πεποίηται Christ. 28. εἶ] τὰ ΑΞ“, εἰ sup.
scr. τὰ πρὸς αὐτὴν τὴν τέχνην " plerique edd. 24, εἰ add. Vahlen
ante ἀδύνατα. 26. εἴρηται] εὕρηται Heinsius: τηρεῖται M. Schmidt.
28. ἢ μὴ ἧττον Ueberweg, ἧττον Α΄: ἢ ἧττον rec. Αὔ, Vahlen. 29,
ἡμαρτῆσθαι seclus, Bywater: ἡμάρτηται Ald., Bekker.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 2—5 93

The vehicle of expression is language,—either common 2
words or rare words or metaphors. There are also many
modifications of language, which we concede to the poets.
Add to this, that the standard of correctness is not the 3
same in poetry and politics, any more than in poetry and
any other art. Within the art of poetry itself there are
two kinds of faults;—those which touch its essence, and
those which are accidental. If a poet has proposed to 4
himself to imitate something, but has imitated it
incorrectly through want of capacity, the error is
inherent in the poetry. But if the failure is due to the
thing he has proposed to do—if he has represented a
horse as throwing out both his right legs at once, or
introduced technical inaccuracies in medicine, it may be,
or in any other art—the error is not essential to the
poetry. By such considerations as these we should
answer the objections raised by the critics.

First we will suppose the poet has represented things 5
impossible according to the laws of his own art. It is
an error; but the error may be justified, if the end of
the art be thereby attained (the end being that already
mentioned),—if, that is, the effect of this or any other
part of the poem is thus rendered more striking. A case in
point is the pursuit of Hector. If, however, the end might
have been as well, or better, attained without violating the
special rules of the poetic art, the error is not justified :
for every kind of error should, if possible, be avoided.

Again, does the error touch the essentials of the
poetic art, or some accident of it? For example—not
to know that a hind has no horns isa less serious matter
than to paint it inartistically.

94 XXV. 6—10. 1460 Ὁ 34—1461 a 17

ἐπιτιμῶται ὅτι οὐκ ἀληθῆ, GAN ἴσως <a@s> δεῖ----οἷον καὶ
n al r /
35 Σοφοκλῆς ἔφη αὐτὸς μὲν οἵους δεῖ ποιεῖν, Εὐριπίδην δὲ οἷοι
ΡΥ
εἰσίν----ταὐτῃ λυτέον. εἰ δὲ μηδετέρως, ὅτι οὕτω φασίν᾽ οἷον 7
τὰ περὶ θεῶν, ἴσως γὰρ οὔτε βέλτιον οὕτω λέγειν οὔτ᾽ ἀληθῆ,
3 \
u6la ἀλλ᾽ <el> ἔτυχεν ὥσπερ ἘΞενοφάνει" ἀλλ᾽ οὖν φασι. τὰ
δὲ tows οὐ βέλτιον μέν, GAN οὕτως εἶχεν, οἷον τὰ περὶ τῶν
»“ 4 ᾽ν
ὅπλων, “ ἔγχεα δέ cp” Op? ἐπὶ σαυρωτῆρος" + οὕτω γὰρ
/ a a n
τότ᾽ ἐνόμιζον, ὥσπερ καὶ νῦν Ἰλλυριοί. περὶ δὲ τοῦ καλῶς 8
Xx \ lal x » / Xx 7 > / /
57) μὴ καλῶς ἢ εἴρηταί τινι ἢ πέπρακται, ob μόνον σκεπτέον
> διὸ, Ν J ΧΑ, ΄ 4 > ὃ tal
εἰς αὐτὸ TO πεπραγμένον ἢ εἰρημένον βλέποντα, εἰ σπουδαῖον
a \ ἃ
ἢ φαῦλον, ἀλλὰ καὶ εἰς τὸν πράττοντα ἢ λέγοντα πρὸς ὃν
ra) ,ὔ
ἢ ὅτε ἢ ὅτῳ ἢ οὗ ἕνεκεν, οἷον ἢ μείζονος ἀγαθοῦ, ἵνα γέ-
Xx / an & > / \ \ Ν \
νηται, ἢ μείζονος κακοῦ, ἵνα ἀπογένηται. τὰ δὲ πρὸς THY 9
10 λέξιν ὁρῶντα δεῖ διαλύειν, οἷον γλώττῃ “οὐρῆας μὲν πρῶ-
᾿Ξ ἴσως γὰρ οὐ τοὺς ἡμιόνους λέγει ἀλλὰ τοὺς φύ-
8

τον
ἈΝ / Ν /
λακας, Kal τὸν Δόλωνα “ὅς ῥ᾽ ἢ τοι εἶδος μὲν Env KaKds ”
> \ n > / > ἈΝ \ / 3 / \
οὐ TO σῶμα ἀσύμμετρον ἀλλὰ TO πρόσωπον αἰσχρὸν, TO
\ > \ ε a > "ae - Ko’ dee ,
γὰρ εὐειδὲς οἱ ἹΚρῆτες εὐπρόσωπον καλοῦσι" καὶ τὸ “ ξωρό-
᾽4

15 τερον δὲ κέραιε᾽᾽ ὁ οὐ τὸ ἄκρατον ὡς οἰνόφλυξιν ἀλλὰ τὸ
ρ ρ ρ

θᾶττον. τὸ δὲ κατὰ μεταφορὰν εἴρηται, οἷον “πάντες μέν 10

pa θεοί τε καὶ ἀνέρες Ἐὗδον παννύχιοι" "δ ἅμα δέ φησιν
1 Iliad x. 152. 2 Ib. i. 50. - ΡΣ x, 816.
4 70. ix. 208,

5 Tb. ii. 1, ἄλλοι μέν ῥα θεοί τε καὶ ἀνέρες ἱπποκορυσταὶ
εὗδον παννύχιοι.
Ib. x. 1, ἄλλοι μὲν παρὰ νηυσὶν ἀριστῆες Παναχαιῶν
εὗδον παννύχιοι.

34. ὡς coni. Vahlen. 35. Evpirlény Heinsius: εὐριπίδης codd.
37. οὕτω apogr. : οὔτε ΑΞ, 1461 a 1. εἰ coni. Vahlen. Zevopdve vel
Ξενοφάνης apogr.: Ξενοφάνη A®: παρὰ Revodave Ritter. οὖν Tyrwhitt :
οὐ A°, οὖν rec.-A°: οὕτω Spengel. 6. εἰ apogr.: ἢ Α9, 8. οἷον
ἢ A: οἷον εἰ apogr. 9. ἢ rec. A® add. 16. τὸ A°: τὰ
Spengel. πάντες Grifenhan : ἄλλοι Α5,

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 6—g 95

Further, if it be objected that the description is not 6
true to fact, the poet may perhaps reply,—‘ But the
objects are as they ought to be’: just as Sophocles said
that he drew men as they ought to be drawn; Euripides,
as they are. In this way the objection may be met. If, 7
however, the representation be of neither kind, the poet
may answer,—‘ This is what is commonly said” This
applies to tales about the gods. It may well be that
these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to

usia fact: they are, very possibly, what Xenophanes says of
them. But anyhow, ‘this is what is said” Again,
a description may be no better than the fact: ‘still,
it was the fact’; as in the passage about the arms:
‘Upright upon their butt-ends stood the spears.” This
was the custom then, as it now is among the Illyrians.

' Again, in examining whether what has been said or 8
done by some one is right or wrong, we must not look
merely to the particular speech or action, and ask
whether it is in itself good or bad. We must also con-
sider by whom it is said, to whom, when, in whose
interest, or for what end; whether, for instance, it be
for the sake of attaining some greater good, or averting
some greater evil.

Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the 9
diction. We may note a rare word, as in οὐρῆας μὲν
πρῶτον, where the poet perhaps employs οὐρῆας not in
the sense of mules, but of sentinels. So, again, of Dolon:
‘ill-favoured indeed he was to look upon. It is ποὺ
meant that his body was ill-shaped, but that his face
was ugly; for the Oretans use the word evevdés, ‘ well-
favoured, to denote a fair face. Again, ζωρότερον δὲ

96 XXYV. 10o—15. 1461 a 18—33

“ ἣ τοι OT ἐς πεδίον TO Τρωικὸν ἀθρήσειεν, Αὐλῶν συρίγγων
θ᾽ “ πὴ κα τὰ ΄ 95 A a , \
ὅμαδον τὸ γὰρ πάντες ἀντὶ τοῦ πολλοί, κατὰ μετα-
20 φορὰν εἴρηται, τὸ γὰρ πᾶν πολύ TL’ καὶ τὸ “ οἴη δ᾽ ἄμμο-
339 \ 4 \ \ , ΄ \ 1l
ρος * κατὰ μεταφοράν, τὸ yap γνωριμώτατον μόνον. κατὰ
/
δὲ προσῳδίαν, ὥσπερ [Ἱππίας ἔλυεν ὁ Θάσιος τὸ “ δίδομεν

e103

δέ οἱ" ὅ καὶ “ τὸ μὲν οὗ καταπύθεται ὄμβρῳ." τὰ δὲ διαιρέ- 12
σει, οἷον ᾿Ἐξμπεδοκλῆς “ αἶψα δὲ θνήτ᾽ ἐφύοντο, τὰ πρὶν μά-

25 θον ἀθάνατ᾽ «εἶναι-- Ζωρά τε πρὶν κέκρητο." τὰ δὲ ἀμφι- 18
βολίᾳ, “ παρῴχηκεν δὲ πλέω νύξ᾽" 5 τὸ γὰρ πλείω ἀμφί-
βολόν ἐστιν. τὰ δὲ κατὰ τὸ ἔθος τῆς λέξεως" τῶν κεκρα- 14

κνημὶς

νεοτεύκτου κασσιτέροιο," ὅθεν εἴρηται ὁ Γανυμήδης “Avi

ςς

͵ὔ / /
μένων <évia> οἶνόν φασιν εἶναι, [ὅθεν πεποίηται

> / 390. > / 5 \ / \ \ /
30 oivoyoevel, ' οὐπινόντων οἶνον, καὶ χαλκέας τοὺς τὸν σίδηρον
roe lal
ἐργαζομένους. εἴη δ᾽ ἂν τοῦτό γε <Kal> κατὰ μεταφοράν. δεῖ 15
n ,
δὲ καὶ ὅταν ὄνομά τι ὑπεναντίωμά τι δοκῇ σημαίνειν, ἐπι-

σκοπεῖν ποσαχῶς ἂν σημαίνοι τοῦτο ἐν τῷ εἰρημένῳ, οἷον

1 [liad x. 11, ἢ τοι ὅτ᾽ ἐς πεδίον τὸ Τρωικὸν ἀθρήσειεν,
θαύμαζεν πυρὰ πολλὰ τὰ καίετο ᾿Ιλιόθι πρό,
αὐλῶν συρίγγων τ᾽ ἐνοπὴν ὅμαδόν 7 ἀνθρώπων.

2 Ib. xviii. 489, οἴη δ᾽ ἄμμορός ἐστι λοετρῶν ᾽Ωκεανοῖο.

3 Ib. xxi. 297, δίδομεν δέ οἱ εὖχος ἀρέσθαι. Sed in Iliade ii. 15

(de quo hic igitur) Τρώεσσι δὲ κήδε᾽ ἐφῆπται.
4 70, xxiii. 328, τὸ μὲν οὐ καταπύθεται ὄμβρῳ.
> 7b, x. 261, μάλα yap νὺξ ἄνεται, ἐγγύθι δ᾽ ἠώς,
᾿ἄστρα δὲ δὴ προβέβηκε, παρῴχηκεν δὲ πλέων νὺξ
τῶν δύο μοιράων, τριτάτη δ᾽ ἔτι μοῖρα λέλειπται.
6 Tb. xxi. 592. 7 70. xx. 234.

19. rodapogr.: om. A‘. 25. εἶναι add. Vettori collato Athenaeo.
wpa Athenaeus: {Ga codd. κέκρητο ΑΞ, t rec. sup. scr. : κέκριτο apogr. :
ἄκρητα Karsten ed. Empedocles. 26. πλέω A: πλέον apogr.:
πλέων Ald. πλείω] πλεῖον vel πλέον apogr. 28. ἔνια addidi: <éca>
τῶν κεκραμένων Vahlen: «ὅσα πο:- τῶν κεκραμένων Ueberweg: πᾶν
κεκραμένον Bursian. ὅθεν πεποίηται. . . κασσιτέροιο seclus. Christ.
29. ὅθεν εἴρηται... οἶνον in codd. post ἐργαζομένους, hue revocavit Maggi
sec. cod. Lampridii. 31. καὶ add. Heinsius. 33. σημαίνοι olim
Vahlen: σημαίνοιε AS: σημήνειεν vel σημαίνειε apogr. : σημήνειε Vahlen ed. 3.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 9—16 97

κέραιε, ‘mix the drink livelier,’ does not mean ‘ mix it
stronger’ as for hard drinkers, but ‘mix it quicker.’
Sometimes an expression is metaphorical, as ‘ Now all 10

gods and men were sleeping through the night,—while at
the same time the poet says: ‘ Often indeed as he turned
his gaze to the Trojan plain, he marvelled at the sound
of flutes and pipes.” ‘All’ is here used metaphorically
for ‘many,’ all being a species of many. So in the

verse—‘alone she hath no part .. , οἴη, ‘alone,’ is
metaphorical; for the best known may be called the
only one.

Again, objections may be removed by a change 11
of accent, as Hippias of Thasos did in the lines,—
δίδομεν (διδόμεν) δέ of, and τὸ μὲν οὗ (οὐ) καταπύθεται
ὄμβρῳ.

' Or again, by punctuation, as in Empedocles,— Of a 12
sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to
be immortal, and things unmixed before mixed.’

Or again, by ambiguity of construction,—as in 13
παρῴχηκεν δὲ πλέω νύξ, where the word πλέω is
ambiguous.

Or by the usage of language. Thus some mixed 14
drinks are called οἶνος, ‘wine. Hence Ganymede is said
‘to pour the wine to Zeus, though the gods do not
drink wine. So too workers in iron are called
χαλκέας, or workers in bronze. This, however, may
also be taken as a metaphor.

Again, when a word seems to involve some incon- 15
sistency of meaning, we should consider how many
senses it may bear in the particular passage. For
example: ‘there was stayed the spear of bronze ’—we 16

98 XXV. 16—18. 1461 a 34—1461 Ὁ 17
τὸ “τῇ ῥ᾽ ἔσχετο χάλκεον ἔγχος, ἦ

ποσαχῶς ἐνδέχεται. wd) <dé> [ἢ ὡς] μάλιστ᾽ ἄν τις ὑπολά-

1461 Bot, κατὰ τὴν καταντικρὺ ἢ ὡς Γλαύκων λέγει, ὅτι ἔνια

ἀλόγως προυπολαμβάνουσιν καὶ αὐτοὶ καταψηφισάμενοι
/ o a
συλλογίζονται καὶ ὡς εἰρηκότος 6 τι δοκεῖ ἐπιτιμῶσιν, ἂν
ὑπεναντίον ἢ τῇ αὑτῶν οἰήσει. τοῦτο δὲ πέπονθε τὰ περὶ
Ἰκάριον. οἴονται γὰρ αὐτὸν Λάκωνα εἶναι" ἄτοπον οὖν
τὸ μὴ ἐντυχεῖν τὸν Τηλέμαχον αὐτῷ εἰς Λακεδαίμονα
ὴ
ἐλθόντα. τὸ δ᾽ ἴσως ἔχει ὥσπερ οἱ Κεφαλῆνές φασι" παρ᾽
αὑτῶν γὰρ γῆμαι λέγουσι τὸν ᾿δυσσέα καὶ εἶναι ᾿Ἰκάδιον
\
ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ Ἰκάριον. δι’ ἁμάρτημα δὲ τὸ πρόβλημα εἰκός
᾽ : ΟΡ ΣῪ τὸ \ x \ ἢ x X
ἐστιν. ὅλως δὲ τὸ ἀδύνατον μὲν πρὸς THY ποίησιν ἢ πρὸς
\ / a
τὸ βέλτιον ἢ πρὸς THY δόξαν δεῖ ἀνάγειν. πρός τε yap τὴν
7ὔ e , \ 2O7 x >
ποίησιν αἱρετώτερον πιθανὸν ἀδύνατον ἢ ἀπίθανον καὶ Suva-
ΟΝ ν᾿ τ δ , 53 Ψ a
τόν" «καὶ εἰ ἀδύνατον:- τοιούτους εἶναι, οἵους Ζεῦξις
\ a
ἔγραφεν, ἀλλὰ βέλτιον" τὸ yap παράδειγμα δεῖ ὑπερέχειν.
πρὸς <8 > ἅ φασιν, τἄλογα" οὕτω τε καὶ ὅτι ποτὲ οὐκ ἄλο-
/ 3 ἝΞ aks \ \ eee) amen 7 x ς
γόν ἐστιν᾽ εἰκὸς ycp Kal παρὰ TO εἰκὸς γίνεσθαι. τὰ δ᾽ ὕὑπε-

7 > 7 ef - “ Εἰ ὡς a ,
ναντιῶς ELPNMEVA οὕτω σκοήτειν, ὠσΤΕρ OL EV τοις λόγοις

1 70. xx. 272, ry ῥ᾽ ἔσχετο μείλινον ἔγχος.

35. déaddidi: ἢ ὡς seclus. Bywater. ὡδὲ ἢ <wdi>, dsconi. Vahlen: ἐνδέχε-
Tar* ὡδὶ ἢ ws μάλιστ᾽ ἄν τις ὑπολάβοι, Ueberweg. Interpunxerunt post ὧδὲ et
ὑπολάβοι plerique edd. 1461 Ὁ 1. ἔνια] ἔνιοι Vettori. 8. εἰρηκότος ὅ
τι Castelvetro : εἰρηρότες ὅτι AS. 4, αὑτῶν Heinsius: αὐτῶν codd. 8.
αὑτῶν Bekker: αὐτῶν codd. 9. δι’ ἁμάρτημα Maggi: διαμάρτημα codd.,
Bekker, 10. εἶναι εἰκὸς Hermann, fort. recte. ἢ πρὸς Ald., Bekker, fort.
recte. 13. καὶ εἰ ἀδύνατον coni. Vahlen. οἵους Ald., Bekker: οἷον
codd. 15. δ᾽ add. Ueberweg (coni. Vahlen). 16. ὑπεναντίως
Twining, Arabs ‘quae dicta sunt in modum contrarii’: ὑπεναντία ὡς
codd,

τὸ ταύτῃ κωλυθῆναι 16

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 16—18 99

should ask in how many ways we may take ‘being
checked there.’ The true mode of interpretation is the

1461b precise opposite of what Glaucus mentions. Critics, he
says, jump at certain groundless conclusions; they pass
adverse judgment and then proceed to reason on it; and,
assuming that the poet has said whatever they happen
to think, find fault if a thing is inconsistent with their
own fancy. The question about Icarius has been treated
in this fashion. The critics imagine he was a Lacedae-
monian. They think it strange, therefore, that Tele-
machus should not have met him when he went to
Lacedaemon. But the Cephallenian story may perhaps
be the true one. They allege that Odysseus took a wife
from among themselves, and that her father was Icadius
not Icarius. It is merely a mistake, then, that gives
plausibility to the objection.

In general, the impossible must be brought under 17
the law of poetic truth, or of the higher reality, or of
received opinion. With respect to poetic truth, a prob-
able impossibility is to be preferred to a thing improb-
able and yet possible. If, again, we are told it is
impossible that there should be men such as Zeuxis
painted, ‘ Yes,’ we say, ‘ but the impossible is the higher
thing ; for the pattern before the mind must surpass the
reality.’ To justify the irrational, we appeal to what is
commonly said to be. In addition to which, we urge
that the irrational sometimes does not violate reason;
just as ‘it is probable that a thing may happen contrary
to probability.’ |

Inconsistencies should be examined by the same rules 18
as in dialectical refutation—whether the same thing is

100 XXV. 18—XXVI. 2. 1461 Ὁ 18—1462 a1

ἔλεγχοι, εἰ TO αὐτὸ Kal πρὸς TO αὐτὸ Kal ὡσαύτως, ὥστε
καὶ αὐτὸν ἢ πρὸς ἃ αὐτὸς λέγει ἢ ὃ ἂν φρόνιμος ὑποθῆ-

20 Tat. ὀρθὴ δ᾽ ἐπιτίμησις καὶ ἀλογίᾳ καὶ μοχθηρίᾳ, ὅταν μὴ 19
ἀνάγκης οὔσης μηθὲν χρήσηται τῷ ἀλόγῳ, ὥσπερ Εὐριπίδης
τῷ Αἰγεῖ, ἢ τῇ πονηρίᾳ, ὥσπερ ἐν Ὀρέστῃ τοῦ Μενελάου.
τὰ μὲν οὖν ἐπιτιμήματα ἐκ πέντε εἰδῶν φέρουσιν, ἢ γὰρ ὡς 20
ἀδύνατα ἢ ὡς ἄλογα ἢ ὡς βλαβερὰ ἢ ὡς ὑπεναντία ἢ ὡς

25 παρὰ τὴν ὀρθότητα τὴν κατὰ τέχνην. αἱ δὲ λύσεις ἐκ τῶν
εἰρημένων ἀριθμῶν σκεπτέαι, εἰσὶν δὲ δώδεκα.

ΧΧΥΙ πότερον δὲ βελτίων ἡ ἐποποιικὴ μίμησις ἢ ἡ τραγική,
διαπορήσειεν ἄν τις. εἰ γὰρ ἡ ἧττον φορτικὴ βελτίων, τοιαύ-
Tn δ᾽ ἡ πρὸς βελτίους θεατάς ἐστιν ἀεί, λίαν δῆλον ὅτι ἡ

30 ἅπαντα μιμουμένη φορτική᾽ ὡς γὰρ οὐκ αἰσθανομένων ἂν
μὴ αὐτὸς προσθῇ, πολλὴν κίνησιν κινοῦνται, οἷον οἱ φαῦλοι
αὐληταὶ κυλιόμενοι ἂν δίσκον δέῃ μιμεῖσθαι, καὶ ἕλκοντες
τὸν κορυφαῖον ἂν Σκύλλαν airdOow' ἡ μὲν οὖν τραγῳδία 2
τοιαύτη ἐστίν, ᾧς καὶ οἱ πρότερον τοὺς ὑστέρους αὐτῶν ῴοντο

35 ὑποκριτάς" ὡς λίαν γὰρ ὑπερβάλλοντα πίθηκον ὁ Μυννίσκος
τὸν Καλλιππίδην ἐκάλει, τοιαύτη. δὲ δόξα καὶ περὶ Πιν-

1462a δώρου ἦν" ὡς δ᾽ οὗτοι ἔχουσι πρὸς αὑτούς, ἡ ὅλη τέχνη

18. ὥστε καὶ αὐτὸν] οὕτως τε καὶ εἰ καθ᾽ αὑτὸν coni. Christ. 19. φρόνιμος

apogr.: φρόνημον A°, φρόνιμον rec. AS, 20. ἀλογίᾳ καὶ μοχθηρίᾳ
Vahlen: ἀλογία καὶ μοχθηρία codd., Christ. 22. τῳ Αἰγεῖ ἢ τῃ
apogr. (margo): τῷ αἰγειήτη A. 27. βελτίων apogr.: βέλτιον
Ae, 29. δ᾽ ἡ apogr.: δὴ Αθὖ, del, λίαν Vahlen: δειλίαν codd.
31. κινοῦνται apogr. : κινοῦντα AS. 1462 a 1. ἔχουσι apogr. : δ᾽ ἔχουσι

A°, αὑτοὺς Hermann: αὐτοὺς codd.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 18—XXVI. 2 101

meant, in the same relation, and in the same sense;
whether the poet contradicts either what he says himself,
or what is tacitly assumed by a person of intelligence.

The element of the irrational, and, similarly, depravity 19
of character, are justly censured when there is no inner
necessity for introducing them. Such is the irrational
element in the Aegeus of Euripides, and the badness of
Menelaus in the Orestes.

Thus, there are five sources from which critical 20
objections are drawn. Things are censured either as
impossible, or irrational, or morally hurtful, or inconsis-
tent, or inaccurate in respect of some special art. The
answers should be sought under the twelve heads above
mentioned.

XXVI_ The question may be raised whether the Epic or

Tragic mode of imitation is the higher. If the more

refined art is the higher, and the more refined in every

case is that which appeals to the better sort of audience,

the art which imitates indiscriminately is manifestly

most unrefined. The audience is supposed to be incap-

able of apprehension, unless something of their own is

thrown in by the performers, who therefore execute

divers movements. Bad flute-players pirouette, if they

have to express the motion of the discus, or drag the

coryphaeus about when they play the accompaniment of
‘Seylla.’ Tragedy, it is said, has this same defect. We 2

may compare the opinion that the older actors enter-

tained of their successors. Mynniscus used to call

Callippides ‘ape’ on account of the extravagance of his

14622 action, and the same view was held of Pindarus. Tragic

art, then, as a whole, stands to Epic in the same relation

H 2

102 XXVI. 2—6. 1462 a 2—1462 Ὁ 5

πρὸς τὴν ἐποποιίαν ἔχει" τὴν μὲν οὖν πρὸς θεατὰς ἐπιεικεῖς
¢ \
φασιν εἶναι <ol> οὐδὲν δέονται τῶν σχημάτων, THY δὲ τραγι-
κὴν πρὸς φαύλους᾽ εἰ οὖν φορτική, χείρων δῆλον ὅτι ἂν εἴη. 8
a \ 5 > a A e 7 > \ a
5 πρῶτον μὲν <ovv> ov τῆς ποιητικῆς ἡ κατηγορία ἀλλὰ τῆς
ὑποκριτικῆς, ἐπεὶ ἔστι περιεργάζεσθαι τοῖς σημείοις καὶ
ῥαψῳδοῦντα, ὅπερ [ἐστὶ] Σωσίστρατος, καὶ διάδοντα, ὅπερ
ἐποίει Μνασίθεος ὁ ᾿πούντιος. εἶτα οὐδὲ κίνησις ἅπασα
ἀποδοκιμαστέα, εἴπερ μηδ᾽ ὄρχησις, GAN ἡ φαύλων, ὅπερ
10 καὶ Καλλιππίδῃ ἐπετιμᾶτο καὶ νῦν ἄλλοις ὡς οὐκ ἐλευθέρας
γυναῖκας μιμουμένων. ἔτι ἡ τραγῳδία καὶ ἄνευ κινήσεως
ποιεῖ τὸ αὑτῆς, ὥσπερ ἡ ἐποποιία᾽ διὰ γὰρ τοῦ ἀναγινώ-
σκειν φανερὰ ὁποία τίς ἐστιν᾽ εἰ οὖν ἐστι τά γ᾽ ἄλλα
κρείττων, τοῦτό γε οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον αὐτῇ ὑπάρχειν. ἔστι 4
>? \ \ 4 > + “ ον 7 \ a ,
15 δ᾽ ἐπεὶ Ta πάντ᾽ ἔχει ὅσαπερ ἡ ἐποποιία, Kal γὰρ TO μέτρῳ
Ν a 0. \ ὰ > \ / \ \ 2
ἔξεστι χρῆσθαι, καὶ ἔτι οὐ μικρὸν μέρος τὴν μουσικὴν Ka
\ ¥ 5 ἃ ee \ / > / 3
τὰς ὄψεις, δι᾽ ἃς ai ἡδοναὶ συνίστανται ἐναργέστατα. εἶτα
\ ΔΓ Φ \ 4 \ 3 a > 4 ΝῊ ὁ 35. A D4
καὶ TO ἐναργὲς ἔχει Kal ἐν τῇ ἀναγνώσει καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων.
ἔτι τῴ ἐν ἐλάττονι μήκει τὸ τέλος τῆς μιμήσεως εἶναι" 5
Ν \
1462b τὸ γὰρ ἀθροώτερον ἥδιον ἢ πολλῷ κεκραμένον τῷ χρόνῳ"
>
λέγω δ᾽ οἷον εἴ τις τὸν Οἰδίπουν θείη τὸν Σοφοκλέους
ἐν ἔπεσιν ὅσοις ἡ ᾿Ιλιάς. ἔτι ἧττον [ἡ] μία μίμησις 6
ς a > Riis a eae 4 \ ε - /
ἡ τῶν ἐποποιῶν᾽ σημεῖον δέ" ἐκ yap ὁποιασοῦν [μιμήσεως]

7 7 ὰ “ a
5 πλείους τραγῳδίαι γίνονται" ὥστε ἐὰν μὲν ἕνα μῦθον

8. of add. Vettori: ἐπεὶ Christ. 4, εἰ apogr.: ἡ A® 5. οὖν
add. Bywater, Ussing. 7. ἐστὶ seclus. Spengel. διάδοντα apogr. :
διαδόντα AS, 12. αὑτῆς apogr. : αὐτῆς AS. 14. αὐτῇ apogr. : αὐτὴ

A®, ἔστι δ᾽ ἐπεὶ τὰ Gomperz: ἔστι 5’, ὅτι Usener: ἔπειτα διότι codd. 16.
καὶ τὰς ὄψεις} seclus. Spengel: collocavit post ἐναργέστατα Gomperz: καὶ
τὴν ὄψιν Ald., Bekker. 17. δι᾿ ἃς vel αἷς coni. Vahlen: δι᾽ ἧς codd.
18. ἀναγνώσει Maggi: ἀναγνωρίσει Α5, 19. τῷ] τὸ Winstanley, Gomperz.
1462 b 1. ἥδιον ἢ Maggi: ἡδεῖον ἢ apogr. : ἡδονὴ AS. 2, θείη θείη AY.
3. Alt. ἡ om. Ald. 4, μιμήσεως seclus. Gomperz.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXVI. 2—6 103

as these different generations of actors do to one another.
Epic poetry, we are told, is addressed to a cultivated
audience, who do not need gesture; Tragedy, to an
inferior public. Being then unrefined, it is evidently 3
on a lower level.

Now, in the first place, this censure attaches not to
the poetic but to the histrionic art; for gesticulation
may be equally overdone in epic recitation, as by Sosis-
tratus, or in lyrical competition, as by Mnasitheus the
Opuntian. Next, all action is not to be condemned—
any more than all dancing—but only that of bad per-
formers, Such was the fault found in Callippides, as
also in others of our own day, who are censured for
representing ill-bred women. Again, Tragedy like Epic
poetry produces its effect even without action; its
quality can be found out by reading. Τί, then, in all
other respects it is superior, this fault, we say, is not
inherent in it. '

And superior it is, because it has all the epic 4
elements—it may even use the epic metre—with the
music and scenic effects as important accessories; and
these afford the most vivid combination of pleasures.
Further, it has vividness of impression in reading as
well as in representation. Moreover, the art attains its 5

1462) end within narrower limits; for the concentrated effect
is more pleasurable than one which is spread over a long
time and so diluted. What, for example, would be the
effect of the Oedipus of Sophocles, if it were cast into a
form as long as the Iliad? Once more, the Epic imita- 6
tion has less unity; as is shown by this,—that any Epic
poem will furnish subjects for several tragedies. Now

104 XXVI. 6—8. 1462 Ὁ 6—19

a x
ποιῶσιν, ἢ βραχέως δεικνύμενον μύουρον φαίνεσθαι, ἢ
ἀκολουθοῦντα τῷ συμμέτρῳ μήκει ὑδαρῆ. * * λέγω δὲ οἷον

ΕῚ \
ἐὰν ἐκ πλειόνων πράξεων ἢ συγκειμένη, ὥσπερ ἡ Das
ἔχει πολλὰ τοιαῦτα μέρη καὶ ἡ Ὀδύσσεια ἃ καὶ καθ᾽ ἑαυτὰ
ἔχει μέγεθος" καίτοι ταῦτα τὰ ποιήματα συνέστηκεν ὡς
> / BA \ ¢ / lal 4, 4
ἐνδέχεται ἄριστα καὶ ὅτι μάλιστα μιᾶς πράξεως μίμησις.
> 93 4 / lal Wee: a Ὁ /
εἰ οὖν τούτοις τε διαφέρει πᾶσιν Kal ἔτι τῷ τῆς τέχνης 7
ἔργῳ (δεῖ γὰρ οὐ τὴν τυχοῦσαν ἡδονὴν ποιεῖν αὐτὰς ἀλλὰ
τὴν εἰρημένην), φανερὸν ὅτι κρείττων ἂν εἴη μᾶλλον τοῦ
τέλους τυγχάνουσα τῆς ἐποποιίας.

\ \ 5 / \ > , \ 7 A

περὶ μὲν οὖν τραγῳδίας Kal ἐποποιίας, Kal αὐτῶν 8

\ rn 50. A Ν a nr \ / \ / /
καὶ τῶν εἰδῶν Kal τῶν μερῶν, Kal πόσα Kal Ti διαφέρει,
\ a φ Δ \ ,7 9 9 \ \ 5 /
καὶ τοῦ εὖ ἢ μὴ τίνες αἰτίαι, Kal περὶ ἐπιτιμήσεων Kal
λύσεων, εἰρήσθω τοσαῦτα. * * *
6. μείουρον Gomperz praeeunte Tyrwhitt, fort. recte. 7. συμμέτρῳ
Bernays: τοῦ μέτρου codd. post ὑδαρῆ, «ἐὰν δὲ πλείους-- Ald.,
Bekker: «λέγω δὲ οἷον ὁ * ἂν δὲ μή, οὐ μία ἡ μίμησις Ξ- supplendum
coni. Vahlen: <édv δὲ πλείους, οὐ μία ἣ μίμησις- Teichmiiller: «ἄλλως

δὲ ποικίλον Ξ- Gomperz. 9. ἃ add. apogr. 10. καίτοι ταῦτα τὰ
Ald. : καὶ τοιαῦτ᾽ ἄττα Ae et plerique codd. 18. ἢ apogr. : εἰ A°.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXVI. 6—8 105

if the story be worked into a unity, it will, if concisely
told, appear truncated; or, if it conform to the proper
Epic scale, it will seem weak and watery. * * ¥*
What I mean by a story composed of several actions
may be illustrated from the Iliad and Odyssey, which
have many parts, each with a certain magnitude of its
own. Yet these poems are as perfect as possible in
structure; each is, in the truest sense, an imitation of
a single action.

If, then, Tragedy is superior to Epic poetry in all these 7
respects, and, moreover, fulfils its specific function better
as an art—for each art ought to produce, not any chance
pleasure, but the pleasure proper to it, as already stated
— it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, as
attaining its end more perfectly.

Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic 8
poetry in general; their several species and parts, with
the number of each and their differences; the causes
that make a poem good or bad; the objections of the
critics and the answers to these objections. * * *

Printed by R. & R. CLrarK, Edinburgh

Δ ῈλῸ 5 ;

ΤᾺ ΟΣ, i:
Sea ie

᾿

ἘΣ

{
“

The

Ἷ

Ro Nr ere ὅν το

rer by

‘
.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE GREEK GENIUS.

Second Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 75. net.

THE TIMES.—“ The lecture on ‘ The Melancholy of the Greeks’ is
full of sympathetic insight, and that on ‘The Written and the Spoken
Word’ is a most suggestive disquisition on the Greek love of oral dialectic
and all that it implied. . . . Thesubject is well adapted to display the rare
combination of finished scholarship with acute critical insight, which is
Professor Butcher’s characteristic gift.”

MANCHESTER GUARDIAN.—“ Throughout the book we find the
same truth of feeling and completeness of knowledge ; and every reader
will feel refreshed and inspired even if he believes himself to be on tolerably
familiar ground.”

THE SPECTATOR.—“.*. . the happy gift which gives so living an
inspiration to Professor Butcher’s pen. . . . ‘The Written and the Spoken
Word’ is indeed the,title of what is perhaps the most eloquent portion x the
volume. . . . ‘ What we owe to Greece’ is a masterly and many;
exposition of a great subject.”

ACADEMY,—*“ Professor Butcher’s volu
sense of relief as well as of admiration.
show us in admirably clear and un
thought and felt, what Greek citizens
relation between a play of Sophocles an

reek poets
med at, what is the

NATIONAL OBSERVER.—“ Beyond and above its scholarship and
taste, we cannot too highly praise the spirit of urbanity and sane counsel
which animates Professor Butcher’s work. Not only does he sing a pzan
to the glory of Greece ; he preaches on almost every page the virtue of
moderation, culture, and good citizenship.”

ST. JAMESS GAZETTE.—“ A book designed for the inner circle
of the eruditd would necessarily be confined within a narrow circulation ;
but the one before us deserves to be widely read. It appeals to all scholars
who are not specialists, and also to those who without knowledge of the
Greek language have acquired a love of Greek literature.”

MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON.

THE ODYSSEY OF HOMER.

Done into English Prose by S. H. Burcner, Litt.D.,
LL.D., Professor of Greek in the University of Edin-
burgh; formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge,
and University College, Oxford; and A. Lance, M.A.,
LL.D., late Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Crown
8vo. 6s.

SATURDAY REVIEW.—“ The present brilliant translation
of the Odyssey is another most gratifying proof of the taste and
soundness of English scholarship. . . . The brilliant and exact
scholarship of Mr. Butcher is happily combined with Mr. Lang’s
wide knowledge of the early poetry of different peoples. The
translation is good for all readers. . . . The notes, few but
precious, in which Homer is illustrated by quotations from the
poets of Iceland or Finland, show that the poet is describing a
real state of manners and society through which other nations
besides the Greeks have passed. . . . It preserves to a surprising
egree the poetry and charm of the original.”

By Prof.
15. 6d.

HER, Litt.D., LL.D. Fcap. 8vo.
[Classical Writers.

Prof. Jebb in the ACADEMY.—“ An admirable little book.
Mr. Butcher has brought his finished scholarship ‘to bear on a
difficult, but most interesting, chapter of Greek literary history. . . .
The result is as fresh and attractive in form as it is ripe in
learning and thorough in method. . . . Mr. Butcher’s primer
forcibly illustrates the sense in which the best Greek scholar is the
best critic of Greek literature. . . . I have no doubt that this
excellent sketch will greatly serve the intelligent study of
Demosthenes in England.”

MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON.

i = ΝΕ eee ore re ian aeuea eee . Υ δας “ὦ
ae » Φ ad ᾿ Υ * μι δι “Ty ».-. vey : ; 4 δεῖς, = 4 is Ve ee ον Ἐωμ-..ὄ SA reno ond

ῥ

ΓΝ ΨΥ eS OM

3018042

η Unive of Tp
Library |

Acme Library Card P
LOWE-MARTIN CO.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Poetics; translated with a critical text by S.H. Butcher"

See other formats